Periodic Table of Desserts

I have to thank a geek girlfriend of mine, Alison from North Carolina who submitted this "did-you-know" link. A place of posters that you can order which present the Periodic table of desserts, vegetables, fruits and endangered species. A super cool place to wander for Christmas presents. This is just an FYI when you're having a hard time finding that just-right gift for your scientific friend (or is that fiend?)

Enjoy!

Geek Think: How Scientists Approach the World

Almost there, aren’t we? Congratulations. Now, at last, it is time to consider why you have been taking this class.

A few facts about chemistry is one good reason. Learning how to think like a scientist is the other.

Today we will be addressing the second point, the fine art of honing the geek mind. We will approach this subject by example, by going through the experiment that was assigned a couple of sessions ago. The following little piece constitutes my own effort at completing the task, with a few editorial comments thrown into spice the stew. Naturally in the normal order of things all of this would be recorded in a laboratory notebook so that you could sign and date the entries, to protect your important insights from competitors in the Alka-Seltzer analysis field. You will just have to settle for reading about it on line.

Let’s start with HYPOTHESES. I came up with two:

Two-tailed: Altering the reaction temperature will alter the reaction rate.

One-Tailed: The reaction will increase as the reaction temperature rises.

A two-tailed hypothesis is one that makes no assumption about what outcome will occur (i.e., a rising reaction temperature will alter the rate either up or down), while a one-tailed hypothesis picks a specific way in which you think the outcome may trend.

The next thing a good experiment needs is a list of MATERIALS. I include separate headings for reagents (the stuff that participates in and/or is consumed during the chemical reaction – in this case Alka-Seltzer and water) and equipment to perform the experiment (clear glass, 1-cup measuring cup, watch with second hand, thermometer). The materials list is followed by a really detailed, step-by-step set of METHODS. One must pay great attention to detail in this section so that (1) you can catch any mistakes you have made in running the experiment and (2) so that other people can replicate your work. In science, if it can’t be repeated is not considered reputable. The methods I used for this experiment were, in order, the following:

1. Alka-Seltzer tablets were unwrapped two at a time.

2. Water was prepared as follows:

a. Cold (~0°C): Four 1-in³ ice cubes were added to four cups of water and left for 15 minutes

b. Normal (~20°C) Four cups of water were decanted from a receptacle after sitting for 24 hours at room temperature

c. Hot (~100°C) Four cups of tap water were heated to boiling in a teapot

3. The glass was equilibrated to the desired water temperature by pre-filling with either ice water or hot water.

4. One cup of water at the appropriate temperature was placed in the glass. A 1-in³ ice cube was added to the “cold trials” to keep the water cold.

5. A single tablet was dropped from a 2-inch height into the vessel.

6. Time (in seconds) to complete dissolution of the primary tablet (i.e., the end of violent fizzing) was recorded.

7. Ancillary (“other”) measurements included observations on tablet motility and gas evolution.

Of course, the point of an experiment is to get some RESULTS. These are the ones I got. I put them into a table so that the raw data (the values measured during all the trials) would be available for inspection. Then I calculated the mean (the average) of the results for each temperature so that someone wanting to quickly see the outcome would be able to do so at a glance.

	Temperature
Trial	0°C	20°C	100°C
1	87 s	47 s	34 s
2	100 s	45 s	33 s
3	80 s	49 s	32 s
4	66 s	49 s	32 s
Mean	**83	48	**33
SD	14	2	1

The double asterisks (**) denote that the mean values for these two groups are significantly different from the mean value for the 20°C group, p < style=""> (Normally, statistical significance is assigned to an outcome if p <>

I made a few additional observations on characteristics of Alka-Seltzer. These traits were not the focus of my hypotheses, so I did not measure them exactly. However, I made some reasonable “guesstimates” regarding their repeatability so that I could investigate them in more detail.

1. Tablet motility varied by temperature. Tablet orientation became:

a. Cold (~0°C): Vertical at 45 to 50 s

Floated at 55 to 60 s

b. Normal (~20°C) Vertical at 15 to 20 s

Floated at 20 to 25 s

c. Hot (~100°C) Vertical orientation not seen

Floated immediately

2. Tablet character upon cessation of fizzing.

a. Cold (~0°C): Many small particles and much foam cover most of the surface

b. Normal (~20°C) A few fine particles and some foam line the rim of the glass

c. Hot (~100°C) No particles or foam remain

3. Gas evolution varied by temperature.

a. Cold (~0°C): Fine bubbles made from top of tablet, large ones from beneath

b. Normal (~20°C) Fine bubbles made from top and bottom of tablet

c. Hot (~100°C) Myriad fine bubbles from entire surface of tablet, as well as elaboration of steam from upper surface

Finally, you use the results to make an INTERPRETATION. This step is also called drawing conclusions or making inferences. In this case, my results confirmed the hypotheses I made: the rate of a chemical reaction is significantly increased as the reaction temperature is raised.

A word on STATISTICS. Mark Twain popularized the Benjamin Disraeli proverb, “There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics.” This statement is knocking statistics, but those who would use a mass of poorly understand numbers – even if correctly calculated – to support an inaccurate conclusion. Scientists rely on statistics to avoid false positive and false negative conclusions. A false positive or Type I error occurs when the statistical calculation suggests that something is of significance but in reality it is not, while a false negative or Type II error occurs when something significant in the real world is not identified as such using the statistical analysis. In general, scientists tend to try to avoid the Type I error more vigorously. A detailed consideration of statistics s way, way, way beyond the scope of this blog. Just keep in mind that statistical calculations can be used by different scientists working on the same problem to bolster totally opposite points of view. Just because a number is thrown at you, don’t believe that the “answer” it is trying to reinforce is true. The concept caveat emptor – “Let the buyer beware” – is particularly true in science. Be open to new ideas, but be skeptical about adopting them without a thorough review of the data for yourself.

Sleep tight. It all ends tomorrow. The class, I mean….

The Universe Within: Quantum Chemistry

Halfway there after today, folks. Hang in there.

The topic for this morning is a continuation of the periodic table, particularly the chemical properties of the major elements and the subatomic structure of the atomic nucleus.

The main topic to consider in mastering the modern periodic table in its relationship to quantum mechanics is how to describe electrons in the nucleus. Each electron has a unique address in the electron cloud, a position in an orbital. Each orbital, or shell, is a wave function describing the likely location of electrons based on the lowest possible energy state of the nucleus. We cannot know precisely where any given electron is in an orbital as stated in the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, but we can still describe it numerically. Modern quantum theory holds that each electron orbits the nucleus in a specific shell and sub-shell with a given orientation. Thus, each electron has a unique “address” composed of four quantum numbers.

The principal quantum number, n, defines the shell in which the electron resides. Values of n are positive, non-zero integers. The shells with n = 1, n = 2, and n = 3 are called the first shell (also called the K shell, for no particular reason), second shell (L shell), and third shell (M shell). The secondary quantum number, l, divides each shell into sub-shells of slightly different energies. For a given orbital n, the l values can range from 0 to (n – 1). Thus, for the first shell (n = 1), the only value of l is 0, and only one sub-shell exists; for the second shell (n = 2), values of l can be 0 or 1, and two sub-shells are present; and so on. The sub-shells are designated by a letter code, where the first (l = 0) is labeled “s”, the second (l = 1) is “p”, the third (l = 2) is d, the fourth (l = 3) is “f”. To designate a particular sub-shell, we write the principal quantum number followed by the letter code for the sub-shell. The lower the sub-shell number, the lower the energy. The third quantum number is known as the magnetic quantum number and is designated m_l. It divides each shell into individual orbitals. Values for m_l can range from +l to –l. Thus, the s sub-shell (l = 0) has a single orbital since +0 and -0 are still just 0, while the p sub-shell (l = 1) has three orbitals (+1, 0, -1). All the orbitals of a given sub-shell have the same energy. The fourth quantum number is the spin quantum number, m_s, which is either + ½ or - ½. The Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons in the same atom can have identical values for all four quantum numbers.

Atoms are built from the inside out, by adding electrons to the lowest possible orbital because this is the lowest and therefore most favored energy state. This concept is termed the aufbau principle (German for “building up”). When added to a specific orbital, Hund’s rule states that electrons will spread out as much as possible, avoiding pairing within an orbital for as long as possible.

The interaction of atoms in chemical reactions is dictated by the electron configuration in the outer (or valence) shell. Elements in the same group (column) of the periodic table have similar arrangements of electrons in their valence shell. The valence shells fill as one progresses from left to right in the periodic table, until all positions are occupied in the VIIIA group (noble gases) located farthest to the right. The completely filled valence shell of the noble gases renders them quite unreactive. Many other elements undergo chemical reactions in such a way that their electron configuration tends to assume the same configuration as the nearest noble gas.

Rest well until tomorrow – in body, if not in mind.

The Big Picture: Chemistry Gets Organized

One day down, four to go. Let’s rock on.

The major topic for the next couple of days is MODERN ATOMIC THEORY. Chemistry did not begin until this principle had gained general acceptance in the early 1800s . The first recorded hypothesis regarding the basic unit of material things is attributed to the pre-Socratic Greek philosopher, Democritus (c. 460–c. 370 B.C.). After his teacher Leucippus had noted that a beach looks smooth from afar but really consists of individual sand grains, Democritus said that the concept could be extended to all matter because material things were made of indivisible particles. Democritus called his particles atomos, meaning "cannot be cut." His ideas were largely ignored until the scientific revolution of the western Enlightenment (16^th to 18^th centuries) due to widespread acceptance of Aristotle’s (c. 384–c. 322 B.C.) view that all matter was comprised of earth, air, water, and fire in varying proportions, and that matter could be transmuted into gold by adjusting the ratios of these four elements. (Aristotle also limited matter to four essential properties: hot, cold, dry, and wet!)

In modern times, atomic theory was rediscovered by John Dalton (1766-1844), an English physical scientist. In the early 1800s he was a professor of mathematics and natural philosophy, and he dedicated his research efforts to standardizing then known chemical knowledge. The result was a series of principles to explain the structure of matter:

1. Matter consists of tiny particles (atoms).
2. Atoms are indestructible. In chemical reactions they can rearrange but not break apart.
3. All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and other properties (true then, as isotopes had not been discovered).
4. Atoms of different elements differ in mass and other properties.
5. Elements combined into a given compound always react in a fixed ratio.

The atomic theory provided the impetus for later attempts to develop a unifying principle for all chemistry (and physics!) knowledge, the PERIODIC TABLE. Many scientists in the late 1700s and early 1800s contributed to its theoretical underpinnings, but the laurel for the first modern version goes to Dmitri Mendeleev – to give the most common of the spellings for his name). This Russian chemist is accorded the honor because his array not only attempted to systematize existing chemical knowledge but because he used his model to make predictions about the existence and properties of then unknown elements. Mendeleev arranged his table into columns (groups) and rows (periods) according to elemental atomic weights (representing the mass of protons and neutrons), while modern tables use atomic number (proton number). Entities in a given group or period share certain chemical properties based on their atomic structure, and particularly the number and arrangement of electrons in the outer (or valence) orbital. But more on that tomorrow….

Chemistry Experiment

Chemistry AS403 – Experiment

Chemical reactions proceed at a set rate, but the rate varies depending on many factors. Environmental conditions in particular have a major impact on the rate at which reactions may proceed.

Undertake the following experiment at home to test this principle.

Buy a box of Alka-Seltzer anti-indigestion medication. This product combines acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin), sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) and citric acid.

You will be conducting an experiment with 3 tablets. Place one tablet in a glass of hot (but not boiling) water, another in a glass of ice-cold water, and a third in a glass filled with water that is at room temperature. Measure how long the fizzing continues in each glass after dropping the tablet.

Prior to the experiment, construct hypotheses about (1) the likely outcome and (2) the mechanism by which the fizzing is produced. After gathering data, interpret your results, design any follow-up experiments that might be needed to refine the data, and make a list of factors that might have impacted the accuracy of your experiment.

Feel free to use the left-over Alka-Seltzer to sooth your heartburn....

Simulation on Public Policy

Chemistry AS403 – Simulation

Washington, D.C.

Spring, 2019. The one bright spot in the usual atmosphere of political infighting and intrigue is public contentment with the austere homeland security policies that finally succeeded in interdicting illegal immigration across the nation’s 2000-mile southern border beginning in 2013. This success was achieved through the combined use of multiple electrified fences backed by solid concrete walls, with regular defoliation of the intervening no-man’s-land between the barriers using biodegradable herbicides.

In 2014, the United States had suffered a severe bout of inflation due to the rise in wages associated with the loss of several million “guest” workers, while Mexico underwent a major recession due to many factory closures stemming from the loss of major American markets. Mexico responded by suspending diplomatic relations with the United States. Relations were restored in 2017 thanks to the efforts of the newly elected Administration, which moved rapidly to restore free trade (but not immigration). Mexican factories in border towns were reopened, and the adjacent border became the main route for transporting Mexican goods to the eager American consumer. The entire free trade zone along the Texas – Mexican border developed almost overnight into an economic powerhouse to rival the success of South Korea and Taiwan. Communities on both sides of the border are benefiting by the rapid increase in employment, income levels, and public services. The flagship accomplishments touted by governmental officials in both nations are ample schools and libraries, low-cost medical clinics, and careful environmental stewardship.

Despite the promise, a concern for the region’s population is the rising number of birth defects in infants and cancers in people of all ages. The problem has been smoldering for nearly three decades, but in the last five years the incidence has accelerated rapidly. The local economies are in danger of collapse as potential workers avoid relocation to the region while the incumbent population seeks to leave.

You are a member of a bilateral public policy commission tasked with identifying likely cause of the epidemic and pinpointing means by which the threat may be ended. Develop one or more hypotheses regarding the cause of the problem. Design the necessary tests to verify or negate the hypotheses, keeping in mind both scientific considerations and ancillary concerns (e.g., cost and international relations). Prepare a brief for delivery to the President outlining your hypotheses, proposed experiments (both initial and follow-up), and likely recommendations for dealing with the scenario.

Fundamentals of Chemistry, Day #1 Lecture Notes

Chemistry AS403 – Lecture 1 Notes: Fundamentals of Chemistry

Okay, let the good times roll. Today we cover the basic tools one needs to start taking a crack at chemistry.

Let’s start with VOCABULARY, some simple definitions that will put all of us on the same page as the game gets underway. In alphabetical order:

• Accuracy = closeness of a measured value to the true value
• Atom = the smallest particle of an element (Gr. atomos = “uncut”)
• Chemistry = a science that investigates the composition of materials and how their properties change by their environment
• Compound = substance combining fixed proportions of 2 or more elements
• Density = ratio of an object’s mass to its volume
• Element = a substance that cannot break into a simpler one
• Energy = a quality allowing an object to do work. The two main classes:
• Kinetic = energy in a moving object
• Potential = stored energy (which can be converted to kinetic type)
• Heat = energy that is transferred among objects with different temperatures
• Law = a broad generalization known by experimentation to be true for all people and all times
• Mass = the quantity (NOT weight!) of a given substance
• Matter = anything that occupies space and has mass
• Mixture = material combining variable proportions of 2 or more substances
• Molecule = Smallest particle of a compound
• Precision = closeness of repeated measurements to each other
• Property = characteristics unique to a given substance. Two types are:
• Chemical = trait that can change as a substance reacts with others
• Physical = trait that can be observed without changing the substance
• Specific gravity = ratio of a substance’s density to that of water
• Temperature = property proportional to the average kinetic energy
• Theory = a well-tested explanation of a natural phenomenon
• Weight = the force with which a substance is attracted by gravity
  

Once we have a common lingo, we need some other COMMON PROCEDURES. Chemists, indeed all scientists, use the following tools each and every day. The “Big Three” pieces in the tool kit are the International System of Units (SI), Significant Figures, and Scientific Notation.

The SI scheme offers standard units of measurement for seven basic quantities. The most common in the chemistry laboratory are for length (meter, m); mass (kilogram, kg); time (second, s); temperature (kelvin, K); and amount (mole, mol). The base units can be modified by adding prefixes and suffixes, the most typical of which are mega (10⁶, M); kilo (10³, k); centi (10^-2, c), milli (10^-3, m), micro (10-6, m), and nano (10^-9, n). Conversion factors are used when necessary to convert between the various units. Examples for length and volume (with derived units of length cubed) include:

1 m = 100 cm = 1000 mm

1 m³ = 1000 L (where L = liter)

1 L = 1000 cm³ = 1000 mL

Significant figures are those which have been accurately derived by careful measurements. The number of significant figures in a measured value is equal to the number of digits known for certain plus one that is not totally certain. The higher number of significant figures, the greater the degree of precision.

Scientific notation is a shortcut for writing very large or very small numbers. In science, the standard use is to write numbers to base 10, using exponents. As an example, an electron (a very small subatomic particle) has a mass of about 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 910 kg. In scientific notation, this number is rendered as 9.10 x 10⁻³¹ kg. Simple rules for working with exponents allow scientists to manipulate numbers easily when working with minute samples and very rapid reactions.

Chemistry is Your Friend; Introduction Lecture Notes

Chemistry AS403 – Notes for Introductory Lecture

Breathe. Breathe again. Now, repeat after me: “Remain calm, all is well.”

Welcome to Purgatory, or as I like to call it Chemistry for the Scientifically Reluctant. In the next few sessions, we will take an all-too-brief tour through the wonders of the chemical world.

Why should you come along for the ride? Because your entire existence – body, home, street, community, Earth itself – rises and falls on the basis of the chemical reactions that occur around and within you. Chemistry is your friend, even if you feel that chemistry class is not….

We’ll start the tour with INTRODUCTIONS. Your tour guide/persecutor is Brad Bolon, professional science geek (experimental pathologist and medical writer). I get to torment you with chemistry because

(1) I am a reasonably adept apprentice-level chemist, having about 1000 hours of lecture and lab in the field during the course of my professional education, and

(2) the other topic for this course was physics, which causes my brain cells to short-circuit.

You know who you are (I hope).

The next introductory item is to define HOW SCIENCE FITS INTO THE “REAL” WORLD. “Real” in this context means “material” or “natural” or “physical.” We will approach this question as a scientist would, by constructing a theoretical model off which to bounce our subsequent experiments. Based on lots of years in college (13!) and living in this world (45), my model for gathering and using knowledge emphasizes several different epistemologies. (An epistemology is a system by which we know that something is true.) There are several different epistemologies with relevance to the modern world, and most of us use more than one in the course of our daily lives. Examples include Revelation (“God told me so”), Reason (“it just makes logical sense”), and Tradition (“we have done it that way in the past”). The main epistemology of modern science is Empiricism (“we did an experiment, and this is how the world works”). Put them all together, and my current model of the world looks like the picture above.

To keep us on the same page, to me “hard” science means disciplines that emphasize physical experiments (astronomy, biology, chemistry, mathematics, medicine, physics) while “soft” science means fields where the results depend on unpredictable responses of individual human beings (economics, history, politics, psychology).

Please note that human beings are engaged in acquiring knowledge in all these realms. By definition, humans have opinions of their own, so subjectivity enters into everything that they do. The difference between experiment-based science (whether “hard” or “soft”) is that the only aim is objectivity, so the practitioners strive to remove as much bias as possible when doing their work.

The next introductory topic is to ACING THE HARD SCIENCES. Success in studying science is not easy – it’s not called “hard” science for nothing! – but the goal is attainable. All it takes is self-discipline and a logical approach. I used a 7-step process in my own science education, and I still use it daily as in my work as a scientist. The 7 keys are simple, not rocket science:

(1) Read the textbook the night before class. Yep, I hate to break it to you, but science classics are almost always textbooks. The reason is that science builds on itself over time. In general, about 50% of the stuff printed in current science magazines will prove to be wrong a decade or two from now, while the principles in modern textbooks represent concepts that most scientists believe to be true. So why read the textbook before class? Remember, science builds on itself – in this case, by repetition. The more times you are presented with a concept, the better you will understand it and recall it.

(2) Annotate what you have read. Take notes in the margin of the book or on a separate sheet of paper. Ask questions. Write your own lecture. The act of writing helps your brain to better remember what you have read.

(3) Listen to the lecture. This key is simple, if you show up and maintain some degree of consciousness. It’s even easier if you have read the book before coming to class….

(4) Read the textbook a second time. Not to be a nag, but repetition is good when studying science.

(5) Do the homework. The professor did not dispense problems to you just to torture you. (That is just a side benefit.) The assignment was given because the only way to truly understand a scientific principle is to work with it.

(6) Read more stuff. Don’t just read the assigned pages in the textbook. Read ahead, or reread relevant pages from previous chapters. Look for other presentations regarding the same topic on the Internet. The idea is to give your brain as many different versions of a new principle as are necessary for the concept to finally penetrate.

(7) Repeat as needed. (Duh.)

The thing about science is that it really is hard. People don’t subject themselves to this degree of torture voluntarily unless they are geeky enough to really enjoy the challenge. Maybe you qualify as a science geek, maybe not. Regardless, don’t make the task more difficult on yourself than it has to be.

Star Trek Party!!!!

The Gardner's were kind enough to suggest that we have a Star Trek Party on Saturday evening starting at 8pm. We will be in the main classroom at GWC with a projector to watch the very first episode of Deep Space 9! This episode has some excellent stuff on how we humans view time as linear and how the fabric of space-time is bent and molded into a stable wormhole.

It is the best of physics theory and just plain fun to watch. Make sure to get here early so you get a good seat. I'll be bring popcorn and we'll have other finger foods as well.

I look forward to seeing you there!

Lecture #5: The Properties of Light & Color

Time, Space and Light. Visible Light makes up such a small part of the spectrum, but there is still so much mystery and wonder about it all.

Question: Is a radio wave also a sound wave?

Answer: No, radio waves are part of the Electromagnetic Spectrum and sound waves are mechanical productions of air being pushed.

What is light? Technically, we don’t know. But we have some really fine theories that work well mathematically to give us close approximations.

Light is energy carried in an electromagnetic wave that emanates from vibrating electrons in atoms.

Visible light vibrates at a very high rate, some 100 trillion times per second (10¹⁴ Hertz). Light has an approximate speed of 300,000 km/s or 186,000 miles/sec.

UV light is responsible for sunburns due to its high frequency and clouds are semi-transparent to UV that is how you get burnt on a cloudy day.

Question: Why are lunar eclipses more commonly seen then solar eclipses?

Answer: The shadow of the relatively small moon on the large earth covers a very small part of the earth’s surface. Only a relatively few people are in shadow of the moon in a solar eclipse. But the shadow of the earth completely covers the moon during a total lunar eclipse so everybody who views the nighttime sky can see the shadow of the earth on the moon.

Light enters the human eye through the transparent cover called the cornea, which does about 70% of the necessary bending of light before it passes through the pupil. The light then passes through the lens, which is used only to provide the extra bending power needed to focus images of nearby objects on the layer at the back of the eye. There is also a spot in the retina where all the nerves carrying all the information exit; this is the blind spot.

The size of your pupils depends on your mood. Poker players have unwittingly given themselves away when they had a good hand by the size of their pupils!
Why is the sky blue?

A beam of light falls on an atom and causes the electrons in the atom to vibrate. The vibrating electrons, in turn, re-emit light in various directions. Light is scattered. This is known as Rayleigh Scattering. The shorter the wavelength of light the more light is scattered.

Why are sunsets red?

The lower frequencies of light are scattered the least by nitrogen and oxygen molecules, the primary component of our atmosphere. Therefore red, orange, and yellow light are transmitted through the atmosphere much more than violet or blue. Red, which is scattered the least, passes through more atmosphere than any other color.

Reflection and Refraction

Light interacts with atoms as sound interacts with tuning forks.

The Principle of Least Time – stated in 1650 by Pierre Fermat, Out of all possible paths that light might take to get from one point to another, it takes the path that requires the shortest time.

Index of refraction (n) = speed of light in vacuum divided by the speed of light in material

The Joy of Flames, Sound and Salt!

These two YouTube Videos are great for demonstrating classical physics in action using the mechanical form of sound. The fire one is terrific because it’s FIRE, man! The second one is lovely because it shows how the salt/sand is being made into fractals at higher and higher frequencies!

Rubin’s Tube: The Physics of Music

Seeing Sound, Geeks Make Art

Lecture #4 Notes: Electromagnetism

Benjamin Franklin – Tamer of Zeus due to his ability to harness lightening with the use of the lightening rod. A book is out with the appropriate title, "Stealing God's Thunder."

In current mainstream physics, a Theory of Everything would unify all the fundamental interactions of nature, which are usually considered to be four in number: gravity, the strong nuclear force, the weak nuclear force, and the electromagnetic force. The expected pattern of theories is:

Theory of Everything

Gravity

Electronuclear force (GUT)

Color force

Electroweak force

Strong force

Weak force

Electromagnetism

Electric force

Magnetic force

Michael Faraday – (p.80) Universe on a T-Shirt, “When Faraday was born; messages traveled no faster than horses or ships could carry them; by the time of his death, information could be sent across continents and oceans as fast as it could be typed or read. Electromagnetism as a science did not exist before 1820; by the end of the century it had changed the face of the world.”

Electricity – is a general term for a variety of phenomena resulting from the presence and flow of electric charge

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Van Allen Radiation Belts

The inner ring is 3000km from earth

The outer ring is 15000km from earth

In spite of the earth’s protective magnetic field, many cosmic rays reach the earth’s surface. It is greatest at the poles because the particles do not travel across the magnetic field lines, but along the field lines and are not deflected. This creates the aurora borealis lighting in the sky caused by charged particles in the Van Allen belts striking atmospheric molecules.

Anti-matter:
First created in 1990 and has since been confirmed in it’s creation by multiple accelerators. Antimatter is currently the most valuable substance in existence, with an estimated worth of $300 billion per milligram. This is because production is difficult (only a few atoms are produced in reactions in particle accelerators) and because there is higher demand for the other uses of particle accelerators.