Final Exam Questions...courtesy of your peers!

Here are the questions everyone turned in to be added to the final.

1. Why are thermophiles able to grow and thrive in such high temperatures?
2. What is the PCR process? What is it used for?
3. What part of thermophiles are used in PCR?
4. Mycorrhizae: What are they?
5. Do fungi reproduce asexually or sexually?
6. Mycelium: What is it’s location on a fungus?
7. Yeast is part of the ______Kingdom, has a high/average/low metabolic rate, and grows as normal cells and/or pseudomycelium.
8. Candida yeast are commonly/sometimes/rarely present in the human body, cause inflammation when the immune system __________and are aerobic/anaerobic.
9. Give as much detail as possible on the two methods of reproduction in yeast.

10. Where are blue-green algae found?
11. How do blue-green algae get its food?
12. Name one of the ways blue-green algae is being used today.
13. What are Koch’s four postulates?
14. What is the difference between an exotoxin and an endotoxin?
15. What is virulence factor?
16. What are the four forces? Describe each.
17. Draw and label a eukaryotic cell.
18. What makes carnivorous plants unique?
19. What is a red bulls eye rash a sign of?
20. How is Lyme disease most often transmitted?
21. How is Lyme disease most often treated?

Autotrophs Rule!!!

A nice perspective shot on the size of sequoia trees in California. Joy is standing in the burned out section of this organism that has grown around the wound and continues to thrive.

Homework for tomorrow is below and please read the two chapters listed in your syllabus for lecture. There will be discussions on the topics.

Happy Reading,

Janine

AS405 –Day 7 Homework

1. Home canners pressure-cook vegetables as a precaution against what organisms? What are the variables that pressure-cooking eliminates from these organisms life cycle.

2. Why are the protists especially important to biologists investigating the evolution of eukaryotic life?

3. Why doesn’t the sexual life cycle of humans, which has haploid and diploid stages, qualify as an example of alternation of generations?

4. Why is the health of lichens an indicator of air quality?

5. What is athlete’s foot?

AS405 –Day 8 Homework

1. Give 5 basic differences between monocots and dicots.

2. Why are the leavevs of most plants green? Give details.

3. Why will a tree die if it is girdled? Use appropriate terms and systems.

4. How is water taken up a tree beyond 10.3 meters?

5. Describe symbiotic nitrogen fixation.

Beautiful Funguys

For Hayley and the rest of you that want to see some really cool photos of Fungi. Just Lovely!

Team Teaching Biology

Everyone did great at teaching their various subjects!!! Now, onto the final exam questions. Create three questions from your topic of lecture today for the final. What are the things that you think your fellow geeks aught to know? Homework will be asked for at the beginning of class tomorrow.

Also, reading for tonight will be Chapters 10, 35, 36, 37. It is the world of the Autotrophs we will be discussing tomorrow!! Woo-hoo. Not that I have a bias! LOL!

Janine

Genetics, Day 5 Enjoy the weekend!

The animal with the largest number of chromosomes, I think, is the King Crab at 208! If anyone finds out differently, please post your results. Thanks! Homework below for Day 5.

AS405 –Day 5 Homework ________________________________

1. Compare & Contrast the rival theories of inheritance between Darwin and Mendel. Describe the strengths and weaknesses of both pangenesis and Mendel’s work.

2. Define genotype and phenotype and explain why the relationship between the two is rarely simple. Site examples in your argument.

3. Explain why sex-linked diseases are more common in human males.

4. Describe the structure and functions of telomeres. Explain the significance of telomerase to healthy and cancerous cells.

Cell Theory Lecture 4

Here is the homework for Day 4. Please have chapters 13-16 read prior to coming to class.

AS405 –Day 4 Homework Name: ____________________

1. What are the three stages of cellular communication? Describe what is happening and in what location of the cell.

2. State the stages of cellular mitosis and describe the activity.

3. List and describe the differences between normal and cancer cells.

Read Chapters 10, 11 & 12

Hi, folks.

Please be sure and read chapters 10, 11 & 12 for class on Thursday. You will be asked to summarize the information therein.

Happy reading!

Lecture 3 - Glycolysis, Kreb's and Electron Transport

Krebs Cycle

The citric acid cycle, also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle) or the Krebs cycle, (or rarely, the Szent-Györgyi-Krebs cycle) is a series of enzyme-catalysed chemical reactions of central importance in all living cells that use oxygen as part of cellular respiration. In eukaryotes, the citric acid cycle occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion. The components and reactions of the citric acid cycle were established by seminal work from both Albert Szent-Györgyi and Hans Krebs.

In aerobic organisms, the citric acid cycle is part of a metabolic pathway involved in the chemical conversion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins into carbon dioxide and water to generate a form of usable energy. Other relevant reactions in the pathway include those in glycolysis and pyruvate oxidation before the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation after it. In addition, it provides precursors for many compounds including some amino acids and is therefore functional even in cells performing fermentation.

Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phosphorylation

An electron transport chain couples a chemical reaction between an electron donor (such as NADH) and an electron acceptor (such as O2) to the transfer of H+ ions across a membrane, through a set of mediating biochemical reactions. These H+ ions are used to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the main energy intermediate in living organisms, as they move back across the membrane. Electron transport chains are used for extracting energy from sunlight (photosynthesis) and from redox reactions such as the burning of sugars (respiration).

Electron transport chains in mitochondria
The cells of almost all eukaryotes (animals, plants, fungi, algae, protozoa – in other words, the living things except bacteria, archaea, and a few protists) contain intracellular organelles called mitochondria, which produce ATP. Energy sources such as glucose are initially metabolized in the cytoplasm. The products are imported into mitochondria. Mitochondria continue the process of catabolism using metabolic pathways including the Krebs cycle, fatty acid oxidation, and amino acid oxidation.

The end result of these pathways is the production of two kinds of energy-rich electron donors, NADH and succinate. Electrons from these donors are passed through an electron transport chain to oxygen, which is reduced to water. This is a multi-step redox process that occurs on the mitochondrial inner membrane. The enzymes that catalyze these reactions have the remarkable ability to simultaneously create a proton gradient across the membrane, producing a thermodynamically unlikely high-energy state with the potential to do work. Although electron transport occurs with great efficiency, a small percentage of electrons are prematurely leaked to oxygen, resulting in the formation of the toxic free-radical superoxide.

The similarity between intracellular mitochondria and free-living bacteria is striking. The known structural, functional, and DNA similarities between mitochondria and bacteria provide strong evidence that mitochondria evolved from intracellular prokaryotic symbionts that took up residence in primitive eukaryotic cells.


Oxidative phosphorylation is a metabolic pathway that uses energy released by the oxidation of nutrients to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Although the many forms of life on earth use a range of different nutrients, almost all carry out oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP, the molecule that supplies energy to metabolism. This pathway is probably so pervasive because it is a highly efficient way of releasing energy, compared to alternative fermentation processes such as anaerobic glycolysis.

During oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are transferred from electron donors to electron acceptors such as oxygen, in redox reactions. These redox reactions release energy, which is used to form ATP. In eukaryotes, these redox reactions are carried out by a series of protein complexes within mitochondria, whereas in prokaryotes, these proteins are located in the cells' inner membranes. These linked sets of enzymes are called electron transport chains. In eukaryotes, five main protein complexes are involved, whereas in prokaryotes many different enzymes are present, using a variety of electron donors and acceptors.

The energy released as electrons flow through this electron transport chain is used to transport protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, in a process called chemiosmosis. This generates potential energy in the form of a pH gradient and an electrical potential across this membrane. This store of energy is tapped by allowing protons to flow back across the membrane and down this gradient, through a large enzyme called ATP synthase. This enzyme uses this energy to generate ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP), in a phosphorylation reaction. Unusually, the ATP synthase is driven by the proton flow which forces the rotation of a part of the enzyme—it is a rotary mechanical motor.

Although oxidative phosphorylation is a vital part of metabolism, it produces reactive oxygen species such as superoxide and hydrogen peroxide that lead to propagation of free radicals, damaging cells and contributing to disease and, possibly, aging. The enzymes carrying out this metabolic pathway are also the target of many drugs and poisons that inhibit their activities.


Adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP) is a multifunctional nucleotide that is most important as a "molecular currency" of intracellular energy transfer.[1] In this role, ATP transports chemical energy within cells for metabolism. It is produced as an energy source during the processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration and consumed by many enzymes and a multitude of cellular processes including biosynthetic reactions, motility and cell division. In signal transduction pathways, ATP is used as a substrate by kinases that phosphorylate proteins and lipids, as well as by adenylate cyclase, which uses ATP to produce the second messenger molecule cyclic AMP.

ATP is generated in the cell by energy-consuming processes and is broken down by energy-releasing processes. In this way ATP transfers energy between spatially-separate metabolic reactions. ATP is the main energy source for the majority of cellular functions. This includes the synthesis of macromolecules, including DNA, RNA, and proteins. ATP also plays a critical role in the transport of macromolecules across cell membranes, e.g. exocytosis and endocytosis.

ATP is critically involved in maintaining cell structure by facilitating assembly and disassembly of elements of the cytoskeleton. In a related process, ATP is required for the shortening of actin and myosin filament crossbridges required for muscle contraction. This latter process is one of the main energy requirements of animals and is essential for locomotion and respiration.


The structure of this molecule consists of a purine base (adenine) attached to the 1' carbon atom of a pentose sugar (ribose). Three phosphate groups are attached at the 5' carbon atom of the pentose sugar. ATP is also incorporated into nucleic acids by polymerases in the processes of DNA replication and transcription.



ATP is commonly referred to as a "high energy molecule"; however by itself, this is incorrect. A mixture of ATP and ADP at equilibrium in water can do no useful work at all.[5] Similarly, ATP does not contain "high-energy bonds," rather the "high-energy bonds" are between its products and water, and the bonds within ATP are notable simply for being of lower energy than the new bonds produced when ATP reacts with water. Any other unstable system of potentially reactive molecules would serve as a way of storing energy, if the cell maintained their concentration far from the equilibrium point of the reaction.[5]

The amount of energy released from hydrolysis of ATP can be calculated from the changes in energy under non-natural conditions. The net change in heat energy (enthalpy) at standard temperature and pressure of the decomposition of ATP into hydrated ADP and hydrated inorganic phosphate is −20.5 kJ/mol, with a change in free energy of 3.4 kJ/mol.[6] The energy released by cleaving either a phosphate (Pi) or pyrophosphate (PPi) unit from ATP, with all reactants and products at their standard states of 1 M concentration, are:

ATP + H2O → ADP(hydrated) + Pi(hydrated) + H+(hydrated) ΔG˚ = -30.54 kJ/mol (−7.3 kcal/mol)

ATP + H2O → AMP(hydrated) + PPi(hydrated) + H+(hydrated) ΔG˚ = -45.6 kJ/mol (−10.9 kcal/mol)

These values can be used to calculate the change in energy under physiological conditions and the cellular ATP/ADP ratio. The values given for the Gibbs free energy for this reaction are dependent on a number of factors, including overall ionic strength and the presence of alkaline earth metal ions such as Mg2+ and Ca2+. Under typical cellular conditions, ΔG is approximately −57 kJ/mol (−14 kcal/mol).[7]


The overall process of oxidizing glucose to carbon dioxide is known as cellular respiration and can produce up to 36 molecules of ATP from a single molecule of glucose.[12] ATP can be produced by a number of distinct cellular processes; the three main pathways used to generate energy in eukaryotic organisms are glycolysis and the citric acid cycle/oxidative phosphorylation, both components of cellular respiration; and beta-oxidation. The majority of this ATP production by a non-photosynthetic aerobic eukaryote takes place in the mitochondria, which can make up nearly 25% of the total volume of a typical cell.

AS405 –Day 3 Homework Name: ____________________



1. Compare and Contrast chemiosmosis in mitochondria and chloroplasts.


2. Compare and Contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.








3. Compare and Contrast plant and animal cells.








4. Give examples of exocytosis and endocytosis.






5. Define diffusion, osmosis, and electrochemical gradient and give examples.

Carbon, Macromolecules and Metabolism

I. Carbohydrates – Sugars, Starch, & Chitin

Monosaccharides-glucose, maltose, sucrose, fructose and galactose
Disaccharides – a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage in a dehydration reaction.

Polysaccharides – have a few hundred to a few thousand monosaccharides.
1. Starch: storage polysaccharide for plants
2. Glycogen: storage polysaccharide for animals
3. cellulose: defensive polysaccharide for plants-the most abundant organic compound on Earth (100billion tons annually) few organisms possess enzymes that can digest cellulose.
4. Chitin – exoskeletons hardens with carbonate.

II. Lipids, Hydrophobic Molecules
The fats Glycerol with three fatty acids hanging off of it.
1. Saturated fats, nothing but single bonds on the carbons
2. Unsaturated fats, have double or triple bonds along the fatty acids.

Hydrogenated vegetable oils mean that unsaturated fats have been synthetically converted to saturated fats by adding hydrogen. (Canada-Oreo Cookie Hydrogenation Plant with Lard!)
Phospholipids – cell membranes & micelle
Steroids – ringed structures

III. Proteins, the workhorses of cells
Polypeptides – polymers of amino acids that make up proteins.

Four levels of Protein Structure
1. Primary Structure – the sequence of amino acids
2. Secondary Structure – coiled or folded pattern
3. Tertiary Structure – hydrophobic interactions, disulfide bridges p.77
4. Quaternary Structure – aggregation of multiple polypeptide subunits.

Protein Structure can be disrupted by:
1. pH, salt concentration, temperature this unraveling of the protein is called denaturation.
2. chaperonins – protein molecules that assist the proper folding of other proteins.

IV. Nucleic Acids – Informational Polymers
DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid
RNA –ribonucleic acid
DNA provides directions for its own replication and directs synthesis for RNA. Through RNA controls the protein synthesis.
Pyrimidines (Only Thymine is in DNA and only Uracil is in RNA) & Purines

Only 5 nucleic acids
C - Cytosine
T – Thymine (DNA)
U – Uracil (RNA)
A - Adenine
G – Guanine

Metabolism, Energy & Life
Metabolism – totality of an organism’s chemical reactions.
Catabolic pathways – release energy for use of the organism/cell
Anabolic pathways – consume energy to build complicated molecules.
Bioenergetics – the study of how organisms manage their energy resources.
Thermodynamics – the study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter.
The first law of thermodynamics: Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed. Principle of conservation of energy.
The second law of thermodynamics: Every energy transfer is increasing the entropy of a closed system.
Conversion to heat is the fate of all the chemical energy…
The Quantity of the energy in the universe is constant, but its quality is not.

Gibbs Free Energy:
Metabolic Disequilibrium is required for life. If a cell ever reached a ΔG=0, it would be dead!!!
Energy Coupling - the use of a exergonic process to drive an endergonic one. ATP can mediate this for cells.

Enzymes:
Catalyst – a chemical agent that changes the rate of a reaction without itself being consumed. An enzyme is nothing more than a catalytic protein.


AS405 –Day 2 Homework Name: ____________________


1. What are the four forces in our Universe and their effect?




2. What are the four major polymers and their respective monomer subunits called?






3. List the four major chemical bonds and give examples of each.






4. List the six major functional groups and give their structures.





5. List the five nucleic acids and give their structure.

Occam's Razor, Darwin and Electronegativity

Occam's (Ockham's) Razor:

All other things being equal, the simplest solution is best.

Darwin's Origin of the Species:

2 main concepts

1. Contemporary species arose from a succession of ancestors
2. He proposed a mechanism of evolutions called Natural Selection

The controversy of creationism vs. evolution

Basic Biology Building Blocks (Lecture Day 1)

Folks:

Homework will need to be turned in tomorrow at the beginning of class.

Here are the questions:

1. Define: A form, a system, a principle, confederacy, democracy, republic, physics, chemistry, biology, matter, energy, mathematics, hydrophilic, hydrophobic, solution, solvent, acid, base, pH.


2. List & Describe the 10 Unifying Themes of Biology


3. List the taxonomic scheme


4. What is the scientific method & why has it been so successful


5. List & Describe the four types of chemical bonds.

Chapters 1-6 will need to be read, arrive with questions or I will assume that you understand everything and we'll move onto chapters 7, 8 and 9.

We had some questions in class that were left unanswered...will folks post links or answers as they find them?

Thanks and we'll chat tomorrow! Happy Reading.

Grading & the Final Exam:
All the reading is required
Come to class with questions, if you don’t I’ll assume you understand everything we have covered.
50% of your grade is the final exam
50% of your grade is the homework and I take the median.
Your final exam will be 60 questions answered in 2 hours or less
Questions will be taken from class lecture, homework and all the readings
25% questions on Biochemistry, 25% of the questions on Cell Biology, 25% of the questions on Genetics and 25% of the questions on Plants.
You will be expected to memorize chemical structures, models and cycles

When is something alive?
It must:
Eat, Breathe, Grow and Reproduce
Begs the question….is a virus alive?

Homeostasis-Regulatory mechanisms that maintain an organism’s internal environment within tolerable limits…despite environmental influences.

Page 6 of your book gives a good example of the size comparison of the two cells.

Basic Principles in Biology:
Structure: Work
Form: Function
Surface: Volume

Reductionism – reducing complex systems to simpler components that are more manageable to study. However, there is a dilemma: We cannot fully explain a higher level of order by breaking it down into its parts. The other side of the dilemma is the futility of trying to analyze something without taking it apart!

Cell Theory– Robert Hooke first gave the name cell (1665) in 1839 cells were acknowledged as the universal units of life.
Continuity is based on Heritable Information
Biology has a Vertical Dimension (Size)(Atom to Biosphere) as well as a Horizontal Dimension (Time-4 billion years)

The Story of Biology (Linnaeus)
1735 Linnaeus 2 kingdoms Animals and Plants
1969 5 kingdoms animals, plants, fungi, protists, bacteria
1990 3 domains 4 kingdoms

Darwin’s “Origin of the Species”
2 Main concepts:
Contemporary species arose from a succession of ancestors
He proposed a mechanism of evolutions called Natural Selection
p.13 read a bit of it here.
Evolution is THE core theme of biology.
p. 16 Discovery Science/called….Descriptive Science
The Scientific Method
Observe, Question, Hypothesis, Predict, Test
If yes, support with additional data and tests
If no, Revise your Hypothesis

The Quantum Approach to Autodidact's Education

Here is the link we used in lecture today. Enjoy!

Biology class begins at 1:30pm on Monday (Oct. 20th)

Janine

The Double Slit Experiment...down the rabbit hole!

Day 8 - Biochemistry - Kreb's Cycle ATP Formation

Major metabolic pathways converging on the TCA cycle

Several catabolic pathways converge on the TCA cycle. Reactions that form intermediates of the TCA cycle in order to replenish them (especially during the scarcity of the intermediates) are called anaplerotic reactions.

The citric acid cycle is the third step in carbohydrate catabolism (the breakdown of sugars). Glycolysis breaks glucose (a six-carbon-molecule) down into pyruvate (a three-carbon molecule). In eukaryotes, pyruvate moves into the mitochondria. It is converted into acetyl-CoA by decarboxylation and enters the citric acid cycle.

In protein catabolism, proteins are broken down by protease enzymes into their constituent amino acids. The carbon backbone of these amino acids can become a source of energy by being converted to Acetyl-CoA and entering into the citric acid cycle.

In fat catabolism, triglycerides are hydrolyzed to break them into fatty acids and glycerol. In the liver the glycerol can be converted into glucose via dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate by way of gluconeogenesis. In many tissues, especially heart tissue, fatty acids are broken down through a process known as beta oxidation which results in acetyl-CoA which can be used in the citric acid cycle. Sometimes beta oxidation can yield propionyl CoA which can result in further glucose production by gluconeogenesis in the liver.

The citric acid cycle is always followed by oxidative phosphorylation. This process extracts the energy (as electrons) from NADH and QH₂, oxidizing them to NAD⁺ and Q, respectively, so that the cycle can continue. Whereas the citric acid cycle does not use oxygen, oxidative phosphorylation does.

The total energy gained from the complete breakdown of one molecule of glucose by glycolysis, the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation equals about 30 ATP molecules, in eukaryotes. The citric acid cycle is called an amphibolic pathway because it participates in both catabolism and anabolism.

Day 8–Homework – Cellular Respiration

1. Diagram the Krebs Cycle paying special attention to the creation of ADP, ATP, NAD and NADH. List appropriate enzymes, cofactors and substrates.

Day 7 - Biochemistry - Cellular Respiration( I & II) Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation

Cellular respiration describes the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in a cell or across the cell membrane to get biochemical energy from fuel molecules and the release of the cells' waste products. Energy can be released by the oxidation of fuel molecules and is stored as "high-energy" carriers. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions in metabolism.

Fuel molecules commonly used by cells in respiration include glucose, amino acids and fatty acids, and a common oxidizing agent (electron acceptor) is molecular oxygen (O₂). There are organisms, however, that can respire using other organic molecules as electron acceptors instead of oxygen. Organisms that use oxygen as a final electron acceptor in respiration are described as aerobic, while those that do not are referred to as anaerobic.

The energy released in respiration is used to synthesize molecules that act as a chemical storage of this energy. One of the most widely used compounds in a cell is adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and its stored chemical energy can be used for many processes requiring energy, including biosynthesis, locomotion or transportation of molecules across cell membranes. Because of its ubiquitous nature, ATP is also known as the "universal energy currency", since the amount of it in a cell indicates how much energy is available for energy-consuming processes.

Aerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration requires oxygen in order to generate energy (ATP). It is the preferred method of pyruvate breakdown from glycolysis and requires that pyruvate enter the mitochondrion to be fully oxidized by the Krebs cycle. The product of this process is energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate), by substrate-level phosphorylation, NADH and FADH₂.

Simplified Reaction: C₆H₁₂O_{6 (aq)} + 6O_{2 (g)} → 6CO_{2 (g)} + 6H₂O _(l) ΔH_c -2880 kJ

The reducing potential of NADH and FADH₂ is converted to more ATP through an electron transport chain with oxygen as the "terminal electron acceptor". Most of the ATP produced by aerobic cellular respiration is made by oxidative phosphorylation. This works by the energy released in the consumption of pyruvate being used to create a chemiosmotic potential by pumping protons across a membrane. This potential is then used to drive ATP synthase and produce ATP from ADP. Biology textbooks often state that between 36-38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidised glucose molecule during cellular respiration (2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 32-34 from the electron transport system).^{[citation needed]} Generally, 38 ATP molecules are formed from aerobic respiration.^{[citation needed]} However, this maximum yield is never quite reached due to losses (leaky membranes) as well as the cost of moving pyruvate and ADP into the mitochondrial matrix.^{[citation needed]}

Aerobic metabolism is 19 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism (which yields 2 mol ATP per 1 mol glucose). They share the initial pathway of glycolysis but aerobic metabolism continues with the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. The post glycolytic reactions take place in the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells, and in the cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells.

Glycolysis

Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that is found in the cytoplasm of cells in all living organisms and does not require oxygen. The process converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, and makes energy in the form of two net molecules of ATP. Four molecules of ATP per glucose are actually produced; however, two are consumed for the preparatory phase. The initial phosphorylation of glucose is required to destabilize the molecule for cleavage into two triose sugars. During the pay-off phase of glycolysis, four phosphate groups are transferred to ADP by substrate-level phosphorylation to make four ATP, and two NADH are produced when the triose sugars are oxidized. Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell. The overall reaction can be expressed this way:

Glucose + 2 NAD⁺ + 2 P_i + 2 ADP → 2 pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 ATP + 2 H₂O

Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate

The pyruvate produced in glycolysis is transported across the mitochondrial membranes by a membrane transport protein called the pyruvate carrier.^[1] The pyruvate decarboxylase then produces acetyl-CoA from pyruvate inside the mitochondrial matrix. This oxidation reaction also releases carbon dioxide as a product. In the process one molecule of NADH is formed per pyruvate oxidized.

Citric Acid cycle

This is also called the Krebs cycle or also the tricarboxylic acid cycle. When oxygen is present, acetyl-CoA is produced from pyruvate. If oxygen is not present the cell undergoes fermentation of the pyruvate molecule. If acetyl-CoA is produced the molecule then enters the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) inside the mitochondrial matrix, and gets oxidized to CO2 while at the same time reducing NAD to NADH. NADH can be used by the electron transport chain to create further ATP as part of oxidative phosphorylation. To fully oxidize the equivalent of one glucose molecule, two acetyl-CoA must be metabolized by the Krebs cycle. Two waste products, H₂O and CO₂, are created during this cycle.

Oxidative phosphorylation

In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondrial cristae. It comprises the electron transport chain that establishes a proton gradient (chemiosmotic potential) across the inner membrane by oxidizing the NADH produced from the Krebs cycle. ATP is synthesised by the ATP synthase enzyme when the chemiosmotic gradient is used to drive the phosphorylation of ADP.

Anaerobic respiration

Without oxygen, pyruvate is not metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of fermentation. The pyruvate is not transported into the mitochondrion, but remains in the cytoplasm, where it is converted to waste products that may be removed from the cell. This serves the purpose of oxidizing the hydrogen carriers so that they can perform glycolysis again and removing the excess pyruvate. This waste product varies depending on the organism. In skeletal muscles, the waste product is lactic acid. This type of fermentation is called lactic acid fermentation. In yeast, the waste products are ethanol and carbon dioxide. This type of fermentation is known as alcoholic or ethanol fermentation. The ATP generated in this process is made by substrate phosphorylation, which is phosphorylation that does not involve oxygen.

Anaerobic respiration is less efficient at using the energy from glucose since 2 ATP are produced during anaerobic respiration per glucose, compared to the 30 ATP per glucose produced by aerobic respiration. This is because the waste products of anaerobic respiration still contain plenty of energy. Ethanol, for example, can be used in gasoline (petrol) solutions. Glycolytic ATP, however, is created more quickly. For prokaryotes to continue a rapid growth rate when they are shifted from an aerobic environment to an anaerobic environment, they must increase the rate of the glycolytic reactions. Thus, during short bursts of strenuous activity, muscle cells use anaerobic respiration to supplement the ATP production from the slower aerobic respiration, so anaerobic respiration may be used by a cell even before the oxygen levels are depleted, as is the case in sports that do not require athletes to pace themselves, such as sprinting.

Efficiency of aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration During aerobic respiration 38 molecules of ATP are produced for every molecule of glucose that is oxidised. C₆H₁₂O_{6 (aq)} + 6O_{2 (g)} → 6CO_{2 (g)} + 6H₂O _(l) + 38 ATP The energy released by the complete oxidation of glucose is 2880KJ per mole. The energy contained in 1 mole of ATP is 30.6KJ. Therefore the energy contained in 38 moles of ATP is 30.6×38=1162.8 kj. Therefore efficiency of transfer of energy in aerobic respiration is=1162.8/2880=40.4%.

Anaerobic respiration (1) Yeast (alcoholic fermentation). During alcoholic fermentation, two molecules of ATP are produced. for every molecule of glucose used.

glucose → 2ethanol + 26CO2 (g) +2 ATP

The total energy released by the conversion of glucose to ethanol is 210kj per mole. The energy contained in 2 molecules of ATP is 2×30.6=61.2kj.Therefore efficiency of transfer of energy during alcoholic fermentation is 61.2/210=29.1%.

(2) Muscle (lactate fermentation). During lactate fermentation, 2 molecules of ATP are produced for every molecule of glucose used.

glucose → 2 lactate + 2ATP

The total enery released by conversion of glucose to lactate is 150kj per mole. Therefore efficiency of transfer of energy in lactic acid fermentation is 61.2/150=40.8%. The amount of energy captured as ATP during aerobic respiration is 19 times as much as for anaerobic respiration.From this point of view Aerobic respiration is more efficient than anaerobic respiration.This is because a great deal of energy remains locked within lactate and ethanol.

Day 6 - Biochemistry - Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids & Nucleic Acids

The goal of biochemistry is to describe and explain in molecular terms, all chemical processes of living cells.

The expansive field of biochemistry can be broken up into the following major areas of mechanistic research:

Chemistry of:

• carbohydrates
• lipids
• proteins
• nucleoproteins, nucleic acids, nucleotides
• hemoglobin, porphyrins & relatives

Vitamins
Enzymes
Changes in foodstuffs in alimentary tract
Detoxification mechanisms

• oxidation
• reduction
• hydrolysis
• conjucation

Respiration
Water balance
Acid-Base Balance
Energy metabolism
Metabolism of:

• carbohydrates
• lipids
• proteins
• nucleic acids
• porphyrins & family
• inorganics

Metabolic anatagonism
Blood & other body fluids
Hormones
Urine formation & Renal function

Anatomy of an Animal Cell

General charactoristics:

• Nucleus
• Cytoplasm
• Organelles
• Endoplasmic reticulum (smooth and rough)
• Golgi apparatus
• Lysosomes
• Mitochondria
• Cytoskeleton
• Cell membrane & Extracellular matrix
  

A few comments on Organic Molecules:

• Life as we know it is based on carbon
• Functional groups-clusters of atoms wiht characteristic structure & functions
• Monomers and Polymers
• Condensation-making polymers by lining up monomers and eliminating a water molecule
• Hydrolysis-breaking polymers apart by introducing a water molecule
• Bonds are not physical links. They are links of pure energy
• Covalent bond - sharing electrons (polar and nonpolar)
• Ionic bond - electrons are transferred from one atom to another
• Hydrogen bond - weak attractive force between polar molecules

There are about 50,000 different kinds of proteins in the human body. Proteins are large polypeptides with molecular weights of 10,000 to 1,000,000. The have four levels of structure:

1. Primary structure: sequence of the amino acids that make up the protein
2. Secondary: helical twist
3. Tertiary: a defined 3D geometric shape
4. Quaternary: number & types of polypeptide units & their geometry

Nucleic Acids: Polymers of nucleotides that are made up of 3 components

1. Phosphate group
2. Five carbon sugar called ribose (or deoxyribose)
3. Nitrogenous base

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - the protein which stores the genetic information passed on from parent to offspring

RNA (ribonucleic acid) - serves as the translator of genetic information contained in DNA

Day 6–Biochemistry – Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids and Nucleic Acids

1. Define Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids and Nucleic Acids. Draw a structure of each.

2. Describe the three types of bonds molecules can take on and give examples of each.

3. True or False, “All carbohydrates are sugars.” Why?

4. Describe the value of Glycogen to the mammalian system.

5. Define Hydrophobic, Hydrophilic and the importance of this in the cellular membrane.

6. List the 10 essential Amino Acids. Draw their structures.

7. Give examples of denatured proteins.

8. What is ATP? Draw the structure. Why is it important to cells?

9. List the 6 classes of enzymes & what they catalyze.

10. Enzymes perform catalysis using 4 main mechanisms.

List & Describe.

Day 5 - Homework Questions due Monday

Day 5–Organic Chemistry – Chemical Bonding & Stoichiometry

1. Which of the following compounds would you expect to be ionic: N₂O, Na₂O, CaCl₂, SF₄?

2. Which of the following compounds would you expect to be covalent:
CBr_4, FeS, P₄O₆, PbF₂?

3. Write the empirical formulas for the compounds formed by the following ions:

a) Na⁺ and PO₄^3-

b) Zn²⁺ and SO₄^2-

c) Fe³⁺ and CO₃^2-

4. Calculate the formula weight of:

a) Al(OH)₃

b) CH₃OH

5. Calculate the molar mass of Ca(NO₃)₂.

Day 5- Organic Chemistry- Electronegativities, Bond Polarity and Moles

Bond Polarity and Electronegativity

Courtesy of Dr. Micheal 1998

The electron pairs shared between two atoms are not necessarily shared equally

Extreme examples:

1. In Cl₂ the shared electron pairs is shared equally

2. In NaCl the 3s electron is stripped from the Na atom and is incorporated into the electronic structure of the Cl atom - and the compound is most accurately described as consisting of individual Na⁺ and Cl^- ions

For most covalent substances, their bond character falls between these two extremes

Bond polarity is a useful concept for describing the sharing of electrons between atoms

• A nonpolar covalent bond is one in which the electrons are shared equally between two atoms
• A polar covalent bond is one in which one atom has a greater attraction for the electrons than the other atom. If this relative attraction is great enough, then the bond is an ionic bond

Electronegativity

A quantity termed 'electronegativity' is used to determine whether a given bond will be nonpolar covalent, polar covalent, or ionic.

Electronegativity is defined as the ability of an atom in a particular molecule to attract electrons to itself

(the greater the value, the greater the attractiveness for electrons)

Electronegativity is a function of:

• the atom's ionization energy (how strongly the atom holds on to its own electrons)
• the atom's electron affinity (how strongly the atom attracts other electrons)

(Note that both of these are properties of the isolated atom)

For example, an element which has:

• A large (negative) electron affinity
• A high ionization energy (always endothermic, or positive for neutral atoms)

Will:

• Attract electrons from other atoms
• Resist having its own electrons attracted away

Such an atom will be highly electronegative

Fluorine is the most electronegative element (electronegativity = 4.0), the least electronegative is Cesium (notice that are at diagonal corners of the periodic chart)

General trends:

• Electronegativity increases from left to right along a period
• For the representative elements (s and p block) the electronegativity decreases as you go down a group
• The transition metal group is not as predictable as far as electronegativity
  

Electronegativity and bond polarity

We can use the difference in electronegativity between two atoms to gauge the polarity of the bonding between them

Compound	F2	HF	LiF
Electronegativity Difference	4.0 - 4.0 = 0	4.0 - 2.1 = 1.9	4.0 - 1.0 = 3.0
Type of Bond	Nonpolar covalent	Polar covalent	Ionic (non-covalent)

• In F₂ the electrons are shared equally between the atoms, the bond is nonpolar covalent
• In HF the fluorine atom has greater electronegativity than the hydrogen atom.

The sharing of electrons in HF is unequal: the fluorine atom attracts electron density away from the hydrogen (the bond is thus a polar covalent bond)

• The 'd+' and 'd-' symbols indicate partial positive and negative charges.
• The arrow indicates the "pull" of electrons off the hydrogen and towards the more electronegative atom
• In lithium fluoride the much greater relative electronegativity of the fluorine atom completely strips the electron from the lithium and the result is an ionic bond (no sharing of the electron)

A general rule of thumb for predicting the type of bond based upon electronegativity differences:

• If the electronegativities are equal (i.e. if the electronegativity difference is 0), the bond is non-polar covalent
• If the difference in electronegativities between the two atoms is greater than 0, but less than 2.0, the bond is polar covalent
• If the difference in electronegativities between the two atoms is 2.0, or greater, the bond is ionic
  
  

Questions on Homework

Some students have had questions regarding the homework. The sheet of Questions that I gave you at the end of class is due tomorrow morning at the beginning of class. The Practice Questions throughout the reading packet (Questions 1-28) are due on Monday. If you have any further questions, feel free to email me or give me a call. Have fun with Stoichiometry!

Day 4 - Organic Chemistry - Stoichiometry, Moles, Molars and Carbon Skeletons in the Closet

Physics: the science of matter, its motion, plus space and time.

Chemistry: the composition, structure and properties of matter & the change it undergoes during chemical reactions.

Inorganic chemistry: inorganic matter

Organic chemistry: organic matter-any compound based on a carbon skeleton

Physical chemistry: energy related studies

Analytical chemistry: analysis of samples to get chemical composition & structure

Biochemistry: chemical processes in living organisms

Here is a great graphic on the overview of Chemistry.

And here is the article I used to describe the different classes and geometry of hydrocarbons.

Here is a link to Polymers. (You can also find organic polymers starting on page 135 of your reading packet)

What is a mole? A moldywarp! No, not that sort of animal! We're into Chemistry now and moles have a whole new description.

The mole (symbol: mol) is the base unit that measures an amount of substance. The mole is a counting unit. One mole contains Avogadro's number (approximately 6.02214 x 10²³) entities (atoms, molecules, elemental particles).

A mole is much like "a dozen " in that both are absolute numbers (having no units) and can describe any type of elementary object (object made up of atoms). The mole's use, however, is usually limited to measurement of subatomic, atomic and molecular structures. (see page 97 of your reading packet)

The Molar (symbol: M) In chemistry, concentration is the measure of how much of a given substance there is mixed with another substance. This can apply to any sort of chemical mixture, but most frequently the concept is limited to homogeneous solutions. Molarity is the moles of solute divided by liters of solution. (see page 103 of your reading packet for more clarity)

Chemical Reactions:
1.) Acids & Bases
2.) Precipitation Reactions (ppt rxns) This link is a GREAT introduction and you get to PLAY!
3.)Oxidation & Reduction (redox rxns) A graphic overview of the reaction systems.

Four major factors affect the rate of a chemical reaction:

1.) Concentration of reactant
2.) presence of a catalyst
3.) increased temperature
4.) larger surface area of a reactant (solids and liquids)

You are responsible for the structure of Families of Organic Compounds (Hydrocarbons):
Alkanes
Alkenes
Alkynes
Aromatics

As well as the functional groups attached to them (hydrocarbons)
Alcohols
Ethers
Aldehydes
Ketones
Carboxylic Acids
Esters
Amines
Amides

R, R' and R" represent hydrocarbon groups

Day 4 –Organic Chemistry – Homework

Stoichiometry, Moles, Molars and Carbon Skeletons in the Closet

1. Why is carbon such a special atom? List its many features.

2. Describe the differences between Alkanes, Alkenes and Alkynes. Are there similarities?

3. What is an isomer? List 3 examples with structures.

4. Draw a cyclic compound and a heterocyclic compound noting differences and similarities. Describe the physical manifestations of these differences.

5. What makes “Superglue” so effective?

6. Using atomic masses of 12.01 for Carbon, 1.01 for Hydrogen, 39.10 for Potassium and 16.00 for Oxygen; what is the formula mass of Potassium Acetate? (C₂H₃KO₂) Show all calculations.

7. Balance the following equation:

NaOH + H₃PO₄ à Na₃PO₄ + H₂O

8. How many grams of CaCl₂ are needed to prepare 250 mL of 0.125M CaCl₂ solution?

Day 3 – Bohr’s Atom, Schrodinger’s Cat, Heisenberg’s Uncertainty & Witten’s Branes

·

· In the Bohr Model the neutrons and protons (symbolized by red and blue balls in the adjacent image) occupy a dense central region called the nucleus, and the electrons orbit the nucleus much like planets orbiting the Sun (but the orbits are not confined to a plane as is approximately true in the Solar System).

· The adjacent image is not to scale since in the realistic case the radius of the nucleus is about 100,000 times smaller than the radius of the entire atom,

· electrons are point particles without a physical extent.

· This similarity between a planetary model and the Bohr Model of the atom ultimately arises because the attractive gravitational force in a solar system and the attractive Coulomb (electrical) force between the positively charged nucleus and the negatively charged electrons in an atom are mathematically of the same form.

· (The form is the same, but the intrinsic strength of the Coulomb interaction is much larger than that of the gravitational interaction; in addition, there are positive and negative electrical charges so the Coulomb interaction can be either attractive or repulsive, but gravitation is always attractive in our present Universe.)

But the Orbits Are Quantized

Quantized energy levels in hydrogen

1. The basic feature of quantum mechanics that is incorporated in the Bohr Model and that is completely different from the analogous planetary model is that the energy of the particles in the Bohr atom is restricted to certain discrete values. One says that the energy is quantized. This means that only certain orbits with certain radii are allowed; orbits in between simply don't exist.

2.

3. These levels are labeled by an integer n that is called a quantum number. The lowest energy state is generally termed the ground state. The states with successively more energy than the ground state are called the first excited state, the second excited state, and so on. Beyond an energy called the ionization potential the single electron of the hydrogen atom is no longer bound to the atom. Then the energy levels form a continuum. In the case of hydrogen, this continuum starts at 13.6 eV above the ground state ("eV" stands for "electron-Volt", a common unit of energy in atomic physics).

Although this behavior may seem strange to our minds that are trained from birth by watching phenomena in the macroscopic world, this is the way things behave in the strange world of the quantum that holds sway at the atomic level.

Atomic Excitation and De-excitation

Atoms can make transitions between the orbits allowed by quantum mechanics by absorbing or emitting exactly the energy difference between the orbits. The following figure shows an atomic excitation cause by absorption of a photon and an atomic de-excitation caused by emission of a photon.

In each case the wavelength of the emitted or absorbed light is exactly such that the photon carries the energy difference between the two orbits. This energy may be calculated by dividing the product of the Planck constant and the speed of light hc by the wavelength of the light). Thus, an atom can absorb or emit only certain discrete wavelengths (or equivalently, frequencies or energies).

However there were concepts in the new quantum theory which gave major worries to many leading physicists. Einstein, in particular, worried about the element of 'chance' which had entered physics. In fact Rutherford had introduced spontaneous effect when discussing radio-active decay in 1900. In 1924 Einstein wrote:-

There are therefore now two theories of light, both indispensable, and - as one must admit today despite twenty years of tremendous effort on the part of theoretical physicists - without any logical connection.

The Elegant Universe is a NOVA special that is excellent at describing the current quandary of physics and string theory.

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/elegant/program.html

It is available free from this link. (Thank you, Joshua for the reference!)

Day 3 –Homework – Bohr’s Atom, Schrodinger’s Cat, Heisenberg’s Uncertainty & Witten’s Branes

1. Using the atomic models described by John Dalton, J.J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, Neils Bohr and Louis de Broglie and Erwin Schrodinger, what elements are the same? What elements differ?

2. What does it mean to have Quantized Energy Levels? How does this effect where an electron will be?

3. What force is described in the QED theory?

4. What force is described in the QCD theory?

5. Describe Schrodinger’s Cat Paradox. Why is this model used everywhere in the Quantum world?

6. Look up the Dirac Equation of 1928 and describe why it was so important to Quantum Mechanics.

7. Why is string theory so novel? What are some of the assumptions that the theory makes that will cause testing the theory to be difficult? What are some of the dangers of string theory?

8. What is the difference between fermions and a bosons?

9. What is Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle?

The Particle Adventure

Here is a great link to help you in understanding the different particles in Physics as well as answer many questions regarding supersymmetry, CERN and Fermilab

AS404- Day 2 – Gavity, Light & Failure of Classical Physics

Mass and Weight

The mass of an object is a fundamental property of the object; a numerical measure of its inertia; a fundamental measure of the amount of matter in the object. Definitions of mass often seem circular because it is such a fundamental quantity that it is hard to define in terms of something else. All mechanical quantities can be defined in terms of mass, length, and time. The usual symbol for mass is m and its SI unit is the kilogram. While the mass is normally considered to be an unchanging property of an object, at speeds approaching the speed of light one must consider the increase in the relativistic mass.

The weight of an object is the force of gravity on the object and may be defined as the mass times the acceleration of gravity, w = mg. Since the weight is a force, its SI unit is the newton. Density is mass/volume.

Weight

The weight of an object is defined as the force of gravity on the object and may be calculated as the mass times the acceleration of gravity, w = mg. Since the weight is a force, its SI unit is the newton.

For an object in free fall, so that gravity is the only force acting on it, then the expression for weight follows from Newton's second law.

You might well ask, as many do, "Why do you multiply the mass times the freefall acceleration of gravity when the mass is sitting at rest on the table?". The value of g allows you to determine the net gravity force if it were in freefall, and that net gravity force is the weight. Another approach is to consider "g" to be the measure of the intensity of the gravity field in Newtons/kg at your location. You can view the weight as a measure of the mass in kg times the intensity of the gravity field, 9.8 Newtons/kg under standard conditions.

Weightlessness

While the actual weight of a person is determined by his mass and the acceleration of gravity, one's "perceived weight" or "effective weight" comes from the fact that he is supported by floor, chair, etc. If all support is removed suddenly and the person begins to fall freely, he feels suddenly "weightless" - so weightlessness refers to a state of being in free fall in which there is no perceived support. The state of weightlessness can be achieved in several ways, all of which involve significant physical principles.

c as Speed Limit

The speed of light c is said to be the speed limit of the universe because nothing can be accelerated to the speed of light with respect to you. A common way of describing this situation is to say that as an object approaches the speed of light, its mass increases and more force must be exerted to produce a given acceleration. There are difficulties with the "changing mass" perspective, and it is generally preferable to say that the relativistic momentum and relativistic energy approach infinity at the speed of light. Since the net applied force is equal to the rate of change of momentum and the work done is equal to the change in energy, it would take an infinite time and an infinite amount of work to accelerate an object to the speed of light. (Sorry, Captain Kirk. We can't give you warp speed!)

A common resistance to the speed limit is to suggest that you just accelerate two different objects to more than half of the speed of light and point them toward each other, giving a relative speed greater than c. But that doesn't work! Time and space are interwoven in such a way that no one observer ever sees another object moving toward them at greater than c. The Einstein velocity addition deals with the transformation of velocities, always yielding a relative velocity less than c. It doesn't agree with your common sense, but it appears to be the way the universe works.

Wave-Particle Duality

Publicized early in the debate about whether light was composed of particles or waves, a wave-particle dual nature soon was found to be characteristic of electrons as well. The evidence for the description of light as waves was well established at the turn of the century when the photoelectric effect introduced firm evidence of a particle nature as well. On the other hand, the particle properties of electrons was well documented when the DeBroglie hypothesis and the subsequent experiments by Davisson and Germer established the wave nature of the electron.

The Photoelectric Effect

The details of the photoelectric effect were in direct contradiction to the expectations of very well developed classical physics. The explanation marked one of the major steps toward quantum theory.

The remarkable aspects of the photoelectric effect when it was first observed were: 1. The electrons were emitted immediately - no time lag! 2. Increasing the intensity of the light increased the number of photoelectrons, but not their maximum kinetic energy! 3. Red light will not cause the ejection of electrons, no matter what the intensity! 4. A weak violet light will eject only a few electrons, but their maximum kinetic energies are greater than those for intense light of longer wavelengths!

Experiment

Analysis of data from the photoelectric experiment showed that the energy of the ejected electrons was proportional to the frequency of the illuminating light. This showed that whatever was knocking the electrons out had an energy proportional to light frequency. The remarkable fact that the ejection energy was independent of the total energy of illumination showed that the interaction must be like that of a particle which gave all of its energy to the electron! This fit in well with Planck's hypothesis that light in the blackbody radiation experiment could exist only in discrete bundles with energy

E = hν

This equation says that the energy of a particle of light (E), called a photon, is proportional to its frequency (v), by the Plank constant (h). This means that photons with low frequencies, like radio waves, have lower energies than photons with high frequencies, like x-rays.

Wave-Particle Duality: Light

Does light consist of particles or waves? When one focuses upon the different types of phenomena observed with light, a strong case can be built for a wave picture:

Interference

Diffraction

Polarization

By the turn of the 20th century, most physicists were convinced by phenomena lke the above that light could be fully described by a wave, with no necessity for invoking a particle nature. But the story was not over.

Phenomenon	Can be explained in terms of waves.	Can be explained in terms of particles.
Reflection (mirror)
Refraction (glass)
Interference(soap bubbles & oil on pavement)
Diffraction (image is circle with dark band then a light band)
Polarization (planar & circular) sunglasses
Photoelectric effect

Most commonly observed phenomena with light can be explained by waves. But the photoelectric effect suggested a particle nature for light. Then electrons too were found to exhibit dual natures.

3-6: The Hypothesis of Light Quanta and the Photoelectric Effect

Look up this link Richardson

Average Mean Median and Mode: http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/57602.html

Day 2 - Gavity, Light & Failure of Classical Physics-Homework

1. Discuss the wave/particle theory of Quantum Mechanics.

2. What is electromagnetism?

3. What were J.J. Thompson’s contributions? Why did he get the Nobel Prize?

4. George Thompson won a Nobel Prize in Physics? Why? What ramifications did his work have?

5. Discuss Earnest Rutherford’s contributions and the physicists he inspired or taught. Why are his students important?

6. How did Plank’s constant (ħ) help with understanding the Photoelectric effect?

7. You weigh 72 kilograms on earth, how many pounds do you weigh on the Jupiter? (Jupiter’s gravity is 2.5 times greater than earth).

8. Tie your ankles together with a rope or yarn that is five feet long. Without removing the rope, drop your pants and put them back on inside out. Describe your reactions and understanding throughout this process.