Biology's Building Blocks

Final Exam Questions...courtesy of your peers!

2008-10-30T08:28:00.006-06:00

Here are the questions everyone turned in to be added to the final.

1. Why are thermophiles able to grow and thrive in such high temperatures?
2. What is the PCR process? What is it used for?
3. What part of thermophiles are used in PCR?
4. Mycorrhizae: What are they?
5. Do fungi reproduce asexually or sexually?
6. Mycelium: What is it’s location on a fungus?
7. Yeast is part of the ______Kingdom, has a high/average/low metabolic rate, and grows as normal cells and/or pseudomycelium.
8. Candida yeast are commonly/sometimes/rarely present in the human body, cause inflammation when the immune system __________and are aerobic/anaerobic.
9. Give as much detail as possible on the two methods of reproduction in yeast.

10. Where are blue-green algae found?
11. How do blue-green algae get its food?
12. Name one of the ways blue-green algae is being used today.
13. What are Koch’s four postulates?
14. What is the difference between an exotoxin and an endotoxin?
15. What is virulence factor?
16. What are the four forces? Describe each.
17. Draw and label a eukaryotic cell.
18. What makes carnivorous plants unique?
19. What is a red bulls eye rash a sign of?
20. How is Lyme disease most often transmitted?
21. How is Lyme disease most often treated?

Autotrophs Rule!!!

2008-10-29T19:07:00.005-06:00

A nice perspective shot on the size of sequoia trees in California. Joy is standing in the burned out section of this organism that has grown around the wound and continues to thrive.

Homework for tomorrow is below and please read the two chapters listed in your syllabus for lecture. There will be discussions on the topics.

Happy Reading,

Janine

AS405 –Day 7 Homework

1. Home canners pressure-cook vegetables as a precaution against what organisms? What are the variables that pressure-cooking eliminates from these organisms life cycle.

2. Why are the protists especially important to biologists investigating the evolution of eukaryotic life?

3. Why doesn’t the sexual life cycle of humans, which has haploid and diploid stages, qualify as an example of alternation of generations?

4. Why is the health of lichens an indicator of air quality?

5. What is athlete’s foot?

AS405 –Day 8 Homework

1. Give 5 basic differences between monocots and dicots.

2. Why are the leavevs of most plants green? Give details.

3. Why will a tree die if it is girdled? Use appropriate terms and systems.

4. How is water taken up a tree beyond 10.3 meters?

5. Describe symbiotic nitrogen fixation.

Beautiful Funguys

2008-10-28T20:15:00.002-06:00

For Hayley and the rest of you that want to see some really cool photos of Fungi. Just Lovely!

Team Teaching Biology

2008-10-28T20:00:00.003-06:00

Everyone did great at teaching their various subjects!!! Now, onto the final exam questions. Create three questions from your topic of lecture today for the final. What are the things that you think your fellow geeks aught to know? Homework will be asked for at the beginning of class tomorrow.

Also, reading for tonight will be Chapters 10, 35, 36, 37. It is the world of the Autotrophs we will be discussing tomorrow!! Woo-hoo. Not that I have a bias! LOL!

Janine

Genetics, Day 5 Enjoy the weekend!

2008-10-24T21:38:00.004-06:00

The animal with the largest number of chromosomes, I think, is the King Crab at 208! If anyone finds out differently, please post your results. Thanks! Homework below for Day 5.

AS405 –Day 5 Homework ________________________________

1. Compare & Contrast the rival theories of inheritance between Darwin and Mendel. Describe the strengths and weaknesses of both pangenesis and Mendel’s work.

2. Define genotype and phenotype and explain why the relationship between the two is rarely simple. Site examples in your argument.

3. Explain why sex-linked diseases are more common in human males.

4. Describe the structure and functions of telomeres. Explain the significance of telomerase to healthy and cancerous cells.

Cell Theory Lecture 4

2008-10-23T22:40:00.002-06:00

Here is the homework for Day 4. Please have chapters 13-16 read prior to coming to class.

AS405 –Day 4 Homework Name: ____________________

1. What are the three stages of cellular communication? Describe what is happening and in what location of the cell.

2. State the stages of cellular mitosis and describe the activity.

3. List and describe the differences between normal and cancer cells.

Read Chapters 10, 11 & 12

2008-10-22T21:48:00.004-06:00

Hi, folks.

Please be sure and read chapters 10, 11 & 12 for class on Thursday. You will be asked to summarize the information therein.

Happy reading!

Lecture 3 - Glycolysis, Kreb's and Electron Transport

2008-10-22T17:27:00.008-06:00

Krebs Cycle

The citric acid cycle, also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle) or the Krebs cycle, (or rarely, the Szent-Györgyi-Krebs cycle) is a series of enzyme-catalysed chemical reactions of central importance in all living cells that use oxygen as part of cellular respiration. In eukaryotes, the citric acid cycle occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion. The components and reactions of the citric acid cycle were established by seminal work from both Albert Szent-Györgyi and Hans Krebs.

In aerobic organisms, the citric acid cycle is part of a metabolic pathway involved in the chemical conversion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins into carbon dioxide and water to generate a form of usable energy. Other relevant reactions in the pathway include those in glycolysis and pyruvate oxidation before the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation after it. In addition, it provides precursors for many compounds including some amino acids and is therefore functional even in cells performing fermentation.

Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phosphorylation

An electron transport chain couples a chemical reaction between an electron donor (such as NADH) and an electron acceptor (such as O2) to the transfer of H+ ions across a membrane, through a set of mediating biochemical reactions. These H+ ions are used to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the main energy intermediate in living organisms, as they move back across the membrane. Electron transport chains are used for extracting energy from sunlight (photosynthesis) and from redox reactions such as the burning of sugars (respiration).

Electron transport chains in mitochondria
The cells of almost all eukaryotes (animals, plants, fungi, algae, protozoa – in other words, the living things except bacteria, archaea, and a few protists) contain intracellular organelles called mitochondria, which produce ATP. Energy sources such as glucose are initially metabolized in the cytoplasm. The products are imported into mitochondria. Mitochondria continue the process of catabolism using metabolic pathways including the Krebs cycle, fatty acid oxidation, and amino acid oxidation.

The end result of these pathways is the production of two kinds of energy-rich electron donors, NADH and succinate. Electrons from these donors are passed through an electron transport chain to oxygen, which is reduced to water. This is a multi-step redox process that occurs on the mitochondrial inner membrane. The enzymes that catalyze these reactions have the remarkable ability to simultaneously create a proton gradient across the membrane, producing a thermodynamically unlikely high-energy state with the potential to do work. Although electron transport occurs with great efficiency, a small percentage of electrons are prematurely leaked to oxygen, resulting in the formation of the toxic free-radical superoxide.

The similarity between intracellular mitochondria and free-living bacteria is striking. The known structural, functional, and DNA similarities between mitochondria and bacteria provide strong evidence that mitochondria evolved from intracellular prokaryotic symbionts that took up residence in primitive eukaryotic cells.

Oxidative phosphorylation is a metabolic pathway that uses energy released by the oxidation of nutrients to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Although the many forms of life on earth use a range of different nutrients, almost all carry out oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP, the molecule that supplies energy to metabolism. This pathway is probably so pervasive because it is a highly efficient way of releasing energy, compared to alternative fermentation processes such as anaerobic glycolysis.

During oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are transferred from electron donors to electron acceptors such as oxygen, in redox reactions. These redox reactions release energy, which is used to form ATP. In eukaryotes, these redox reactions are carried out by a series of protein complexes within mitochondria, whereas in prokaryotes, these proteins are located in the cells' inner membranes. These linked sets of enzymes are called electron transport chains. In eukaryotes, five main protein complexes are involved, whereas in prokaryotes many different enzymes are present, using a variety of electron donors and acceptors.

The energy released as electrons flow through this electron transport chain is used to transport protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, in a process called chemiosmosis. This generates potential energy in the form of a pH gradient and an electrical potential across this membrane. This store of energy is tapped by allowing protons to flow back across the membrane and down this gradient, through a large enzyme called ATP synthase. This enzyme uses this energy to generate ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP), in a phosphorylation reaction. Unusually, the ATP synthase is driven by the proton flow which forces the rotation of a part of the enzyme—it is a rotary mechanical motor.

Although oxidative phosphorylation is a vital part of metabolism, it produces reactive oxygen species such as superoxide and hydrogen peroxide that lead to propagation of free radicals, damaging cells and contributing to disease and, possibly, aging. The enzymes carrying out this metabolic pathway are also the target of many drugs and poisons that inhibit their activities.

Adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP) is a multifunctional nucleotide that is most important as a "molecular currency" of intracellular energy transfer.[1] In this role, ATP transports chemical energy within cells for metabolism. It is produced as an energy source during the processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration and consumed by many enzymes and a multitude of cellular processes including biosynthetic reactions, motility and cell division. In signal transduction pathways, ATP is used as a substrate by kinases that phosphorylate proteins and lipids, as well as by adenylate cyclase, which uses ATP to produce the second messenger molecule cyclic AMP.

ATP is generated in the cell by energy-consuming processes and is broken down by energy-releasing processes. In this way ATP transfers energy between spatially-separate metabolic reactions. ATP is the main energy source for the majority of cellular functions. This includes the synthesis of macromolecules, including DNA, RNA, and proteins. ATP also plays a critical role in the transport of macromolecules across cell membranes, e.g. exocytosis and endocytosis.

ATP is critically involved in maintaining cell structure by facilitating assembly and disassembly of elements of the cytoskeleton. In a related process, ATP is required for the shortening of actin and myosin filament crossbridges required for muscle contraction. This latter process is one of the main energy requirements of animals and is essential for locomotion and respiration.

The structure of this molecule consists of a purine base (adenine) attached to the 1' carbon atom of a pentose sugar (ribose). Three phosphate groups are attached at the 5' carbon atom of the pentose sugar. ATP is also incorporated into nucleic acids by polymerases in the processes of DNA replication and transcription.

ATP is commonly referred to as a "high energy molecule"; however by itself, this is incorrect. A mixture of ATP and ADP at equilibrium in water can do no useful work at all.[5] Similarly, ATP does not contain "high-energy bonds," rather the "high-energy bonds" are between its products and water, and the bonds within ATP are notable simply for being of lower energy than the new bonds produced when ATP reacts with water. Any other unstable system of potentially reactive molecules would serve as a way of storing energy, if the cell maintained their concentration far from the equilibrium point of the reaction.[5]

The amount of energy released from hydrolysis of ATP can be calculated from the changes in energy under non-natural conditions. The net change in heat energy (enthalpy) at standard temperature and pressure of the decomposition of ATP into hydrated ADP and hydrated inorganic phosphate is −20.5 kJ/mol, with a change in free energy of 3.4 kJ/mol.[6] The energy released by cleaving either a phosphate (Pi) or pyrophosphate (PPi) unit from ATP, with all reactants and products at their standard states of 1 M concentration, are:

ATP + H2O → ADP(hydrated) + Pi(hydrated) + H+(hydrated) ΔG˚ = -30.54 kJ/mol (−7.3 kcal/mol)

ATP + H2O → AMP(hydrated) + PPi(hydrated) + H+(hydrated) ΔG˚ = -45.6 kJ/mol (−10.9 kcal/mol)

These values can be used to calculate the change in energy under physiological conditions and the cellular ATP/ADP ratio. The values given for the Gibbs free energy for this reaction are dependent on a number of factors, including overall ionic strength and the presence of alkaline earth metal ions such as Mg2+ and Ca2+. Under typical cellular conditions, ΔG is approximately −57 kJ/mol (−14 kcal/mol).[7]

The overall process of oxidizing glucose to carbon dioxide is known as cellular respiration and can produce up to 36 molecules of ATP from a single molecule of glucose.[12] ATP can be produced by a number of distinct cellular processes; the three main pathways used to generate energy in eukaryotic organisms are glycolysis and the citric acid cycle/oxidative phosphorylation, both components of cellular respiration; and beta-oxidation. The majority of this ATP production by a non-photosynthetic aerobic eukaryote takes place in the mitochondria, which can make up nearly 25% of the total volume of a typical cell.

AS405 –Day 3 Homework Name: ____________________

1. Compare and Contrast chemiosmosis in mitochondria and chloroplasts.

2. Compare and Contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

3. Compare and Contrast plant and animal cells.

4. Give examples of exocytosis and endocytosis.

5. Define diffusion, osmosis, and electrochemical gradient and give examples.

Carbon, Macromolecules and Metabolism

2008-10-21T18:24:00.002-06:00

I. Carbohydrates – Sugars, Starch, & Chitin

Monosaccharides-glucose, maltose, sucrose, fructose and galactose
Disaccharides – a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage in a dehydration reaction.

Polysaccharides – have a few hundred to a few thousand monosaccharides.
1. Starch: storage polysaccharide for plants
2. Glycogen: storage polysaccharide for animals
3. cellulose: defensive polysaccharide for plants-the most abundant organic compound on Earth (100billion tons annually) few organisms possess enzymes that can digest cellulose.
4. Chitin – exoskeletons hardens with carbonate.

II. Lipids, Hydrophobic Molecules
The fats Glycerol with three fatty acids hanging off of it.
1. Saturated fats, nothing but single bonds on the carbons
2. Unsaturated fats, have double or triple bonds along the fatty acids.

Hydrogenated vegetable oils mean that unsaturated fats have been synthetically converted to saturated fats by adding hydrogen. (Canada-Oreo Cookie Hydrogenation Plant with Lard!)
Phospholipids – cell membranes & micelle
Steroids – ringed structures

III. Proteins, the workhorses of cells
Polypeptides – polymers of amino acids that make up proteins.

Four levels of Protein Structure
1. Primary Structure – the sequence of amino acids
2. Secondary Structure – coiled or folded pattern
3. Tertiary Structure – hydrophobic interactions, disulfide bridges p.77
4. Quaternary Structure – aggregation of multiple polypeptide subunits.

Protein Structure can be disrupted by:
1. pH, salt concentration, temperature this unraveling of the protein is called denaturation.
2. chaperonins – protein molecules that assist the proper folding of other proteins.

IV. Nucleic Acids – Informational Polymers
DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid
RNA –ribonucleic acid
DNA provides directions for its own replication and directs synthesis for RNA. Through RNA controls the protein synthesis.
Pyrimidines (Only Thymine is in DNA and only Uracil is in RNA) & Purines

Only 5 nucleic acids
C - Cytosine
T – Thymine (DNA)
U – Uracil (RNA)
A - Adenine
G – Guanine

Metabolism, Energy & Life
Metabolism – totality of an organism’s chemical reactions.
Catabolic pathways – release energy for use of the organism/cell
Anabolic pathways – consume energy to build complicated molecules.
Bioenergetics – the study of how organisms manage their energy resources.
Thermodynamics – the study of energy transformations that occur in a collection of matter.
The first law of thermodynamics: Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed. Principle of conservation of energy.
The second law of thermodynamics: Every energy transfer is increasing the entropy of a closed system.
Conversion to heat is the fate of all the chemical energy…
The Quantity of the energy in the universe is constant, but its quality is not.

Gibbs Free Energy:
Metabolic Disequilibrium is required for life. If a cell ever reached a ΔG=0, it would be dead!!!
Energy Coupling - the use of a exergonic process to drive an endergonic one. ATP can mediate this for cells.

Enzymes:
Catalyst – a chemical agent that changes the rate of a reaction without itself being consumed. An enzyme is nothing more than a catalytic protein.

AS405 –Day 2 Homework Name: ____________________

1. What are the four forces in our Universe and their effect?

2. What are the four major polymers and their respective monomer subunits called?

3. List the four major chemical bonds and give examples of each.

4. List the six major functional groups and give their structures.

5. List the five nucleic acids and give their structure.

Occam's Razor, Darwin and Electronegativity

2008-10-21T07:55:00.003-06:00

Occam's (Ockham's) Razor:

All other things being equal, the simplest solution is best.

Darwin's Origin of the Species:

2 main concepts

Contemporary species arose from a succession of ancestors
He proposed a mechanism of evolutions called Natural Selection

The controversy of creationism vs. evolution

Basic Biology Building Blocks (Lecture Day 1)

2008-10-20T17:59:00.007-06:00

Folks:

Homework will need to be turned in tomorrow at the beginning of class.

Here are the questions:

Define: A form, a system, a principle, confederacy, democracy, republic, physics, chemistry, biology, matter, energy, mathematics, hydrophilic, hydrophobic, solution, solvent, acid, base, pH.

List & Describe the 10 Unifying Themes of Biology

List the taxonomic scheme

What is the scientific method & why has it been so successful

List & Describe the four types of chemical bonds.

Chapters 1-6 will need to be read, arrive with questions or I will assume that you understand everything and we'll move onto chapters 7, 8 and 9.

We had some questions in class that were left unanswered...will folks post links or answers as they find them?

Thanks and we'll chat tomorrow! Happy Reading.

Grading & the Final Exam:
All the reading is required
Come to class with questions, if you don’t I’ll assume you understand everything we have covered.
50% of your grade is the final exam
50% of your grade is the homework and I take the median.
Your final exam will be 60 questions answered in 2 hours or less
Questions will be taken from class lecture, homework and all the readings
25% questions on Biochemistry, 25% of the questions on Cell Biology, 25% of the questions on Genetics and 25% of the questions on Plants.
You will be expected to memorize chemical structures, models and cycles

When is something alive?
It must:
Eat, Breathe, Grow and Reproduce
Begs the question….is a virus alive?

Homeostasis-Regulatory mechanisms that maintain an organism’s internal environment within tolerable limits…despite environmental influences.

Page 6 of your book gives a good example of the size comparison of the two cells.

Basic Principles in Biology:
Structure: Work
Form: Function
Surface: Volume

Reductionism – reducing complex systems to simpler components that are more manageable to study. However, there is a dilemma: We cannot fully explain a higher level of order by breaking it down into its parts. The other side of the dilemma is the futility of trying to analyze something without taking it apart!

Cell Theory– Robert Hooke first gave the name cell (1665) in 1839 cells were acknowledged as the universal units of life.
Continuity is based on Heritable Information
Biology has a Vertical Dimension (Size)(Atom to Biosphere) as well as a Horizontal Dimension (Time-4 billion years)

The Story of Biology (Linnaeus)
1735 Linnaeus 2 kingdoms Animals and Plants
1969 5 kingdoms animals, plants, fungi, protists, bacteria
1990 3 domains 4 kingdoms

Darwin’s “Origin of the Species”
2 Main concepts:
Contemporary species arose from a succession of ancestors
He proposed a mechanism of evolutions called Natural Selection
p.13 read a bit of it here.
Evolution is THE core theme of biology.
p. 16 Discovery Science/called….Descriptive Science
The Scientific Method
Observe, Question, Hypothesis, Predict, Test
If yes, support with additional data and tests
If no, Revise your Hypothesis

The Quantum Approach to Autodidact's Education

2008-10-16T16:34:00.006-06:00

Here is the link we used in lecture today. Enjoy!

Biology class begins at 1:30pm on Monday (Oct. 20th)

Janine

The Double Slit Experiment...down the rabbit hole!

Day 8 - Biochemistry - Kreb's Cycle ATP Formation

2008-02-26T20:53:00.006-07:00

Major metabolic pathways converging on the TCA cycle

Several catabolic pathways converge on the TCA cycle. Reactions that form intermediates of the TCA cycle in order to replenish them (especially during the scarcity of the intermediates) are called anaplerotic reactions.

The citric acid cycle is the third step in carbohydrate catabolism (the breakdown of sugars). Glycolysis breaks glucose (a six-carbon-molecule) down into pyruvate (a three-carbon molecule). In eukaryotes, pyruvate moves into the mitochondria. It is converted into acetyl-CoA by decarboxylation and enters the citric acid cycle.

In protein catabolism, proteins are broken down by protease enzymes into their constituent amino acids. The carbon backbone of these amino acids can become a source of energy by being converted to Acetyl-CoA and entering into the citric acid cycle.

In fat catabolism, triglycerides are hydrolyzed to break them into fatty acids and glycerol. In the liver the glycerol can be converted into glucose via dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate by way of gluconeogenesis. In many tissues, especially heart tissue, fatty acids are broken down through a process known as beta oxidation which results in acetyl-CoA which can be used in the citric acid cycle. Sometimes beta oxidation can yield propionyl CoA which can result in further glucose production by gluconeogenesis in the liver.

The citric acid cycle is always followed by oxidative phosphorylation. This process extracts the energy (as electrons) from NADH and QH₂, oxidizing them to NAD⁺ and Q, respectively, so that the cycle can continue. Whereas the citric acid cycle does not use oxygen, oxidative phosphorylation does.

The total energy gained from the complete breakdown of one molecule of glucose by glycolysis, the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation equals about 30 ATP molecules, in eukaryotes. The citric acid cycle is called an amphibolic pathway because it participates in both catabolism and anabolism.

Day 8–Homework – Cellular Respiration

1. Diagram the Krebs Cycle paying special attention to the creation of ADP, ATP, NAD and NADH. List appropriate enzymes, cofactors and substrates.

Day 7 - Biochemistry - Cellular Respiration( I & II) Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation

2008-02-26T20:49:00.001-07:00

Cellular respiration describes the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in a cell or across the cell membrane to get biochemical energy from fuel molecules and the release of the cells' waste products. Energy can be released by the oxidation of fuel molecules and is stored as "high-energy" carriers. The reactions involved in respiration are catabolic reactions in metabolism.

Fuel molecules commonly used by cells in respiration include glucose, amino acids and fatty acids, and a common oxidizing agent (electron acceptor) is molecular oxygen (O₂). There are organisms, however, that can respire using other organic molecules as electron acceptors instead of oxygen. Organisms that use oxygen as a final electron acceptor in respiration are described as aerobic, while those that do not are referred to as anaerobic.

The energy released in respiration is used to synthesize molecules that act as a chemical storage of this energy. One of the most widely used compounds in a cell is adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and its stored chemical energy can be used for many processes requiring energy, including biosynthesis, locomotion or transportation of molecules across cell membranes. Because of its ubiquitous nature, ATP is also known as the "universal energy currency", since the amount of it in a cell indicates how much energy is available for energy-consuming processes.

Aerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration requires oxygen in order to generate energy (ATP). It is the preferred method of pyruvate breakdown from glycolysis and requires that pyruvate enter the mitochondrion to be fully oxidized by the Krebs cycle. The product of this process is energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate), by substrate-level phosphorylation, NADH and FADH₂.

Simplified Reaction: C₆H₁₂O_{6 (aq)} + 6O_{2 (g)} → 6CO_{2 (g)} + 6H₂O _(l) ΔH_c -2880 kJ

The reducing potential of NADH and FADH₂ is converted to more ATP through an electron transport chain with oxygen as the "terminal electron acceptor". Most of the ATP produced by aerobic cellular respiration is made by oxidative phosphorylation. This works by the energy released in the consumption of pyruvate being used to create a chemiosmotic potential by pumping protons across a membrane. This potential is then used to drive ATP synthase and produce ATP from ADP. Biology textbooks often state that between 36-38 ATP molecules can be made per oxidised glucose molecule during cellular respiration (2 from glycolysis, 2 from the Krebs cycle, and about 32-34 from the electron transport system).^{[citation needed]} Generally, 38 ATP molecules are formed from aerobic respiration.^{[citation needed]} However, this maximum yield is never quite reached due to losses (leaky membranes) as well as the cost of moving pyruvate and ADP into the mitochondrial matrix.^{[citation needed]}

Aerobic metabolism is 19 times more efficient than anaerobic metabolism (which yields 2 mol ATP per 1 mol glucose). They share the initial pathway of glycolysis but aerobic metabolism continues with the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. The post glycolytic reactions take place in the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells, and in the cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells.

Glycolysis

Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that is found in the cytoplasm of cells in all living organisms and does not require oxygen. The process converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, and makes energy in the form of two net molecules of ATP. Four molecules of ATP per glucose are actually produced; however, two are consumed for the preparatory phase. The initial phosphorylation of glucose is required to destabilize the molecule for cleavage into two triose sugars. During the pay-off phase of glycolysis, four phosphate groups are transferred to ADP by substrate-level phosphorylation to make four ATP, and two NADH are produced when the triose sugars are oxidized. Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell. The overall reaction can be expressed this way:

Glucose + 2 NAD⁺ + 2 P_i + 2 ADP → 2 pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 ATP + 2 H₂O

Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate

The pyruvate produced in glycolysis is transported across the mitochondrial membranes by a membrane transport protein called the pyruvate carrier.^[1] The pyruvate decarboxylase then produces acetyl-CoA from pyruvate inside the mitochondrial matrix. This oxidation reaction also releases carbon dioxide as a product. In the process one molecule of NADH is formed per pyruvate oxidized.

Citric Acid cycle

This is also called the Krebs cycle or also the tricarboxylic acid cycle. When oxygen is present, acetyl-CoA is produced from pyruvate. If oxygen is not present the cell undergoes fermentation of the pyruvate molecule. If acetyl-CoA is produced the molecule then enters the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) inside the mitochondrial matrix, and gets oxidized to CO2 while at the same time reducing NAD to NADH. NADH can be used by the electron transport chain to create further ATP as part of oxidative phosphorylation. To fully oxidize the equivalent of one glucose molecule, two acetyl-CoA must be metabolized by the Krebs cycle. Two waste products, H₂O and CO₂, are created during this cycle.

Oxidative phosphorylation

In eukaryotes, oxidative phosphorylation occurs in the mitochondrial cristae. It comprises the electron transport chain that establishes a proton gradient (chemiosmotic potential) across the inner membrane by oxidizing the NADH produced from the Krebs cycle. ATP is synthesised by the ATP synthase enzyme when the chemiosmotic gradient is used to drive the phosphorylation of ADP.

Anaerobic respiration

Without oxygen, pyruvate is not metabolized by cellular respiration but undergoes a process of fermentation. The pyruvate is not transported into the mitochondrion, but remains in the cytoplasm, where it is converted to waste products that may be removed from the cell. This serves the purpose of oxidizing the hydrogen carriers so that they can perform glycolysis again and removing the excess pyruvate. This waste product varies depending on the organism. In skeletal muscles, the waste product is lactic acid. This type of fermentation is called lactic acid fermentation. In yeast, the waste products are ethanol and carbon dioxide. This type of fermentation is known as alcoholic or ethanol fermentation. The ATP generated in this process is made by substrate phosphorylation, which is phosphorylation that does not involve oxygen.

Anaerobic respiration is less efficient at using the energy from glucose since 2 ATP are produced during anaerobic respiration per glucose, compared to the 30 ATP per glucose produced by aerobic respiration. This is because the waste products of anaerobic respiration still contain plenty of energy. Ethanol, for example, can be used in gasoline (petrol) solutions. Glycolytic ATP, however, is created more quickly. For prokaryotes to continue a rapid growth rate when they are shifted from an aerobic environment to an anaerobic environment, they must increase the rate of the glycolytic reactions. Thus, during short bursts of strenuous activity, muscle cells use anaerobic respiration to supplement the ATP production from the slower aerobic respiration, so anaerobic respiration may be used by a cell even before the oxygen levels are depleted, as is the case in sports that do not require athletes to pace themselves, such as sprinting.

Efficiency of aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration During aerobic respiration 38 molecules of ATP are produced for every molecule of glucose that is oxidised. C₆H₁₂O_{6 (aq)} + 6O_{2 (g)} → 6CO_{2 (g)} + 6H₂O _(l) + 38 ATP The energy released by the complete oxidation of glucose is 2880KJ per mole. The energy contained in 1 mole of ATP is 30.6KJ. Therefore the energy contained in 38 moles of ATP is 30.6×38=1162.8 kj. Therefore efficiency of transfer of energy in aerobic respiration is=1162.8/2880=40.4%.

Anaerobic respiration (1) Yeast (alcoholic fermentation). During alcoholic fermentation, two molecules of ATP are produced. for every molecule of glucose used.

glucose → 2ethanol + 26CO_{2 (g)} +2 ATP

The total energy released by the conversion of glucose to ethanol is 210kj per mole. The energy contained in 2 molecules of ATP is 2×30.6=61.2kj.Therefore efficiency of transfer of energy during alcoholic fermentation is 61.2/210=29.1%.

(2) Muscle (lactate fermentation). During lactate fermentation, 2 molecules of ATP are produced for every molecule of glucose used.

glucose → 2 lactate + 2ATP

The total enery released by conversion of glucose to lactate is 150kj per mole. Therefore efficiency of transfer of energy in lactic acid fermentation is 61.2/150=40.8%. The amount of energy captured as ATP during aerobic respiration is 19 times as much as for anaerobic respiration.From this point of view Aerobic respiration is more efficient than anaerobic respiration.This is because a great deal of energy remains locked within lactate and ethanol.

Day 6 - Biochemistry - Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids & Nucleic Acids

2008-02-24T20:45:00.004-07:00

The goal of biochemistry is to describe and explain in molecular terms, all chemical processes of living cells.

The expansive field of biochemistry can be broken up into the following major areas of mechanistic research:

Chemistry of:

carbohydrates
lipids
proteins
nucleoproteins, nucleic acids, nucleotides
hemoglobin, porphyrins & relatives

Vitamins
Enzymes
Changes in foodstuffs in alimentary tract
Detoxification mechanisms

oxidation
reduction
hydrolysis
conjucation

Respiration
Water balance
Acid-Base Balance
Energy metabolism
Metabolism of:

carbohydrates
lipids
proteins
nucleic acids
porphyrins & family
inorganics

Metabolic anatagonism
Blood & other body fluids
Hormones
Urine formation & Renal function

Anatomy of an Animal Cell

General charactoristics:

Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Organelles

Endoplasmic reticulum (smooth and rough)
Golgi apparatus
Lysosomes
Mitochondria
Cytoskeleton
Cell membrane & Extracellular matrix

A few comments on Organic Molecules:

Life as we know it is based on carbon
Functional groups-clusters of atoms wiht characteristic structure & functions
Monomers and Polymers
Condensation-making polymers by lining up monomers and eliminating a water molecule
Hydrolysis-breaking polymers apart by introducing a water molecule
Bonds are not physical links. They are links of pure energy

Covalent bond - sharing electrons (polar and nonpolar)
Ionic bond - electrons are transferred from one atom to another
Hydrogen bond - weak attractive force between polar molecules

There are about 50,000 different kinds of proteins in the human body. Proteins are large polypeptides with molecular weights of 10,000 to 1,000,000. The have four levels of structure:

Primary structure: sequence of the amino acids that make up the protein
Secondary: helical twist
Tertiary: a defined 3D geometric shape
Quaternary: number & types of polypeptide units & their geometry

Nucleic Acids: Polymers of nucleotides that are made up of 3 components

Phosphate group
Five carbon sugar called ribose (or deoxyribose)
Nitrogenous base

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - the protein which stores the genetic information passed on from parent to offspring

RNA (ribonucleic acid) - serves as the translator of genetic information contained in DNA

Day 6–Biochemistry – Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids and Nucleic Acids

1. Define Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids and Nucleic Acids. Draw a structure of each.

2. Describe the three types of bonds molecules can take on and give examples of each.

3. True or False, “All carbohydrates are sugars.” Why?

4. Describe the value of Glycogen to the mammalian system.

5. Define Hydrophobic, Hydrophilic and the importance of this in the cellular membrane.

6. List the 10 essential Amino Acids. Draw their structures.

7. Give examples of denatured proteins.

8. What is ATP? Draw the structure. Why is it important to cells?

9. List the 6 classes of enzymes & what they catalyze.

10. Enzymes perform catalysis using 4 main mechanisms.

List & Describe.

Day 5 - Homework Questions due Monday

2008-02-22T06:16:00.002-07:00

Day 5–Organic Chemistry – Chemical Bonding & Stoichiometry

1. Which of the following compounds would you expect to be ionic: N₂O, Na₂O, CaCl₂, SF₄?

2. Which of the following compounds would you expect to be covalent:
CBr_4, FeS, P₄O₆, PbF₂?

3. Write the empirical formulas for the compounds formed by the following ions:

a) Na⁺ and PO₄^3-

b) Zn²⁺ and SO₄^2-

c) Fe³⁺ and CO₃^2-

4. Calculate the formula weight of:

a) Al(OH)₃

b) CH₃OH

5. Calculate the molar mass of Ca(NO₃)₂.

Day 5- Organic Chemistry- Electronegativities, Bond Polarity and Moles

2008-02-22T05:59:00.005-07:00

Bond Polarity and Electronegativity

Courtesy of Dr. Micheal 1998

The electron pairs shared between two atoms are not necessarily shared equally

Extreme examples:

1. In Cl₂ the shared electron pairs is shared equally

2. In NaCl the 3s electron is stripped from the Na atom and is incorporated into the electronic structure of the Cl atom - and the compound is most accurately described as consisting of individual Na⁺ and Cl^- ions

For most covalent substances, their bond character falls between these two extremes

Bond polarity is a useful concept for describing the sharing of electrons between atoms

A nonpolar covalent bond is one in which the electrons are shared equally between two atoms
A polar covalent bond is one in which one atom has a greater attraction for the electrons than the other atom. If this relative attraction is great enough, then the bond is an ionic bond

Electronegativity

A quantity termed 'electronegativity' is used to determine whether a given bond will be nonpolar covalent, polar covalent, or ionic.

Electronegativity is defined as the ability of an atom in a particular molecule to attract electrons to itself

(the greater the value, the greater the attractiveness for electrons)

Electronegativity is a function of:

the atom's ionization energy (how strongly the atom holds on to its own electrons)
the atom's electron affinity (how strongly the atom attracts other electrons)

(Note that both of these are properties of the isolated atom)

For example, an element which has:

A large (negative) electron affinity
A high ionization energy (always endothermic, or positive for neutral atoms)

Will:

Attract electrons from other atoms
Resist having its own electrons attracted away

Such an atom will be highly electronegative

Fluorine is the most electronegative element (electronegativity = 4.0), the least electronegative is Cesium (notice that are at diagonal corners of the periodic chart)

General trends:

Electronegativity increases from left to right along a period
For the representative elements (s and p block) the electronegativity decreases as you go down a group
The transition metal group is not as predictable as far as electronegativity

Electronegativity and bond polarity

We can use the difference in electronegativity between two atoms to gauge the polarity of the bonding between them

Compound	F₂	HF	LiF
Electronegativity Difference	4.0 - 4.0 = 0	4.0 - 2.1 = 1.9	4.0 - 1.0 = 3.0
Type of Bond	Nonpolar covalent	Polar covalent	Ionic (non-covalent)

In F₂ the electrons are shared equally between the atoms, the bond is nonpolar covalent
In HF the fluorine atom has greater electronegativity than the hydrogen atom.

The sharing of electrons in HF is unequal: the fluorine atom attracts electron density away from the hydrogen (the bond is thus a polar covalent bond)

The 'd+' and 'd-' symbols indicate partial positive and negative charges.
The arrow indicates the "pull" of electrons off the hydrogen and towards the more electronegative atom
In lithium fluoride the much greater relative electronegativity of the fluorine atom completely strips the electron from the lithium and the result is an ionic bond (no sharing of the electron)

A general rule of thumb for predicting the type of bond based upon electronegativity differences:

If the electronegativities are equal (i.e. if the electronegativity difference is 0), the bond is non-polar covalent
If the difference in electronegativities between the two atoms is greater than 0, but less than 2.0, the bond is polar covalent
If the difference in electronegativities between the two atoms is 2.0, or greater, the bond is ionic

Questions on Homework

2008-02-21T18:11:00.002-07:00

Some students have had questions regarding the homework. The sheet of Questions that I gave you at the end of class is due tomorrow morning at the beginning of class. The Practice Questions throughout the reading packet (Questions 1-28) are due on Monday. If you have any further questions, feel free to email me or give me a call. Have fun with Stoichiometry!

Day 4 - Organic Chemistry - Stoichiometry, Moles, Molars and Carbon Skeletons in the Closet

2008-02-20T20:36:00.008-07:00

Physics: the science of matter, its motion, plus space and time.

Chemistry: the composition, structure and properties of matter & the change it undergoes during chemical reactions.

Inorganic chemistry: inorganic matter

Organic chemistry: organic matter-any compound based on a carbon skeleton

Physical chemistry: energy related studies

Analytical chemistry: analysis of samples to get chemical composition & structure

Biochemistry: chemical processes in living organisms

Here is a great graphic on the overview of Chemistry.

And here is the article I used to describe the different classes and geometry of hydrocarbons.

Here is a link to Polymers. (You can also find organic polymers starting on page 135 of your reading packet)

What is a mole? A moldywarp! No, not that sort of animal! We're into Chemistry now and moles have a whole new description.

The mole (symbol: mol) is the base unit that measures an amount of substance. The mole is a counting unit. One mole contains Avogadro's number (approximately 6.02214 x 10²³) entities (atoms, molecules, elemental particles).

A mole is much like "a dozen " in that both are absolute numbers (having no units) and can describe any type of elementary object (object made up of atoms). The mole's use, however, is usually limited to measurement of subatomic, atomic and molecular structures. (see page 97 of your reading packet)

The Molar (symbol: M) In chemistry, concentration is the measure of how much of a given substance there is mixed with another substance. This can apply to any sort of chemical mixture, but most frequently the concept is limited to homogeneous solutions. Molarity is the moles of solute divided by liters of solution. (see page 103 of your reading packet for more clarity)

Chemical Reactions:
1.) Acids & Bases
2.) Precipitation Reactions (ppt rxns) This link is a GREAT introduction and you get to PLAY!
3.)Oxidation & Reduction (redox rxns) A graphic overview of the reaction systems.

Four major factors affect the rate of a chemical reaction:

1.) Concentration of reactant
2.) presence of a catalyst
3.) increased temperature
4.) larger surface area of a reactant (solids and liquids)

You are responsible for the structure of Families of Organic Compounds (Hydrocarbons):
Alkanes
Alkenes
Alkynes
Aromatics

As well as the functional groups attached to them (hydrocarbons)
Alcohols
Ethers
Aldehydes
Ketones
Carboxylic Acids
Esters
Amines
Amides

R, R' and R" represent hydrocarbon groups

Day 4 –Organic Chemistry – Homework

Stoichiometry, Moles, Molars and Carbon Skeletons in the Closet

1. Why is carbon such a special atom? List its many features.

2. Describe the differences between Alkanes, Alkenes and Alkynes. Are there similarities?

3. What is an isomer? List 3 examples with structures.

4. Draw a cyclic compound and a heterocyclic compound noting differences and similarities. Describe the physical manifestations of these differences.

5. What makes “Superglue” so effective?

6. Using atomic masses of 12.01 for Carbon, 1.01 for Hydrogen, 39.10 for Potassium and 16.00 for Oxygen; what is the formula mass of Potassium Acetate? (C₂H₃KO₂) Show all calculations.

7. Balance the following equation:

NaOH + H₃PO₄ à Na₃PO₄ + H₂O

8. How many grams of CaCl₂ are needed to prepare 250 mL of 0.125M CaCl₂ solution?

Day 3 – Bohr’s Atom, Schrodinger’s Cat, Heisenberg’s Uncertainty & Witten’s Branes

2008-02-20T12:57:00.004-07:00

· In the Bohr Model the neutrons and protons (symbolized by red and blue balls in the adjacent image) occupy a dense central region called the nucleus, and the electrons orbit the nucleus much like planets orbiting the Sun (but the orbits are not confined to a plane as is approximately true in the Solar System).

· The adjacent image is not to scale since in the realistic case the radius of the nucleus is about 100,000 times smaller than the radius of the entire atom,

· electrons are point particles without a physical extent.

· This similarity between a planetary model and the Bohr Model of the atom ultimately arises because the attractive gravitational force in a solar system and the attractive Coulomb (electrical) force between the positively charged nucleus and the negatively charged electrons in an atom are mathematically of the same form.

· (The form is the same, but the intrinsic strength of the Coulomb interaction is much larger than that of the gravitational interaction; in addition, there are positive and negative electrical charges so the Coulomb interaction can be either attractive or repulsive, but gravitation is always attractive in our present Universe.)

But the Orbits Are Quantized

Quantized energy levels in hydrogen

1. The basic feature of quantum mechanics that is incorporated in the Bohr Model and that is completely different from the analogous planetary model is that the energy of the particles in the Bohr atom is restricted to certain discrete values. One says that the energy is quantized. This means that only certain orbits with certain radii are allowed; orbits in between simply don't exist.

3. These levels are labeled by an integer n that is called a quantum number. The lowest energy state is generally termed the ground state. The states with successively more energy than the ground state are called the first excited state, the second excited state, and so on. Beyond an energy called the ionization potential the single electron of the hydrogen atom is no longer bound to the atom. Then the energy levels form a continuum. In the case of hydrogen, this continuum starts at 13.6 eV above the ground state ("eV" stands for "electron-Volt", a common unit of energy in atomic physics).

Although this behavior may seem strange to our minds that are trained from birth by watching phenomena in the macroscopic world, this is the way things behave in the strange world of the quantum that holds sway at the atomic level.

Atomic Excitation and De-excitation

Atoms can make transitions between the orbits allowed by quantum mechanics by absorbing or emitting exactly the energy difference between the orbits. The following figure shows an atomic excitation cause by absorption of a photon and an atomic de-excitation caused by emission of a photon.

In each case the wavelength of the emitted or absorbed light is exactly such that the photon carries the energy difference between the two orbits. This energy may be calculated by dividing the product of the Planck constant and the speed of light hc by the wavelength of the light). Thus, an atom can absorb or emit only certain discrete wavelengths (or equivalently, frequencies or energies).

However there were concepts in the new quantum theory which gave major worries to many leading physicists. Einstein, in particular, worried about the element of 'chance' which had entered physics. In fact Rutherford had introduced spontaneous effect when discussing radio-active decay in 1900. In 1924 Einstein wrote:-

There are therefore now two theories of light, both indispensable, and - as one must admit today despite twenty years of tremendous effort on the part of theoretical physicists - without any logical connection.

The Elegant Universe is a NOVA special that is excellent at describing the current quandary of physics and string theory.

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/elegant/program.html

It is available free from this link. (Thank you, Joshua for the reference!)

Day 3 –Homework – Bohr’s Atom, Schrodinger’s Cat, Heisenberg’s Uncertainty & Witten’s Branes

1. Using the atomic models described by John Dalton, J.J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, Neils Bohr and Louis de Broglie and Erwin Schrodinger, what elements are the same? What elements differ?

2. What does it mean to have Quantized Energy Levels? How does this effect where an electron will be?

3. What force is described in the QED theory?

4. What force is described in the QCD theory?

5. Describe Schrodinger’s Cat Paradox. Why is this model used everywhere in the Quantum world?

6. Look up the Dirac Equation of 1928 and describe why it was so important to Quantum Mechanics.

7. Why is string theory so novel? What are some of the assumptions that the theory makes that will cause testing the theory to be difficult? What are some of the dangers of string theory?

8. What is the difference between fermions and a bosons?

9. What is Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle?

The Particle Adventure

2008-02-19T21:01:00.002-07:00

Here is a great link to help you in understanding the different particles in Physics as well as answer many questions regarding supersymmetry, CERN and Fermilab

AS404- Day 2 – Gavity, Light & Failure of Classical Physics

2008-02-19T13:13:00.003-07:00

Mass and Weight

The mass of an object is a fundamental property of the object; a numerical measure of its inertia; a fundamental measure of the amount of matter in the object. Definitions of mass often seem circular because it is such a fundamental quantity that it is hard to define in terms of something else. All mechanical quantities can be defined in terms of mass, length, and time. The usual symbol for mass is m and its SI unit is the kilogram. While the mass is normally considered to be an unchanging property of an object, at speeds approaching the speed of light one must consider the increase in the relativistic mass.

The weight of an object is the force of gravity on the object and may be defined as the mass times the acceleration of gravity, w = mg. Since the weight is a force, its SI unit is the newton. Density is mass/volume.

Weight

The weight of an object is defined as the force of gravity on the object and may be calculated as the mass times the acceleration of gravity, w = mg. Since the weight is a force, its SI unit is the newton.

For an object in free fall, so that gravity is the only force acting on it, then the expression for weight follows from Newton's second law.

You might well ask, as many do, "Why do you multiply the mass times the freefall acceleration of gravity when the mass is sitting at rest on the table?". The value of g allows you to determine the net gravity force if it were in freefall, and that net gravity force is the weight. Another approach is to consider "g" to be the measure of the intensity of the gravity field in Newtons/kg at your location. You can view the weight as a measure of the mass in kg times the intensity of the gravity field, 9.8 Newtons/kg under standard conditions.

Weightlessness

While the actual weight of a person is determined by his mass and the acceleration of gravity, one's "perceived weight" or "effective weight" comes from the fact that he is supported by floor, chair, etc. If all support is removed suddenly and the person begins to fall freely, he feels suddenly "weightless" - so weightlessness refers to a state of being in free fall in which there is no perceived support. The state of weightlessness can be achieved in several ways, all of which involve significant physical principles.

c as Speed Limit

The speed of light c is said to be the speed limit of the universe because nothing can be accelerated to the speed of light with respect to you. A common way of describing this situation is to say that as an object approaches the speed of light, its mass increases and more force must be exerted to produce a given acceleration. There are difficulties with the "changing mass" perspective, and it is generally preferable to say that the relativistic momentum and relativistic energy approach infinity at the speed of light. Since the net applied force is equal to the rate of change of momentum and the work done is equal to the change in energy, it would take an infinite time and an infinite amount of work to accelerate an object to the speed of light. (Sorry, Captain Kirk. We can't give you warp speed!)

A common resistance to the speed limit is to suggest that you just accelerate two different objects to more than half of the speed of light and point them toward each other, giving a relative speed greater than c. But that doesn't work! Time and space are interwoven in such a way that no one observer ever sees another object moving toward them at greater than c. The Einstein velocity addition deals with the transformation of velocities, always yielding a relative velocity less than c. It doesn't agree with your common sense, but it appears to be the way the universe works.

Wave-Particle Duality

Publicized early in the debate about whether light was composed of particles or waves, a wave-particle dual nature soon was found to be characteristic of electrons as well. The evidence for the description of light as waves was well established at the turn of the century when the photoelectric effect introduced firm evidence of a particle nature as well. On the other hand, the particle properties of electrons was well documented when the DeBroglie hypothesis and the subsequent experiments by Davisson and Germer established the wave nature of the electron.

The Photoelectric Effect

The details of the photoelectric effect were in direct contradiction to the expectations of very well developed classical physics.

The explanation marked one of the major steps toward quantum theory.

The remarkable aspects of the photoelectric effect when it was first observed were:

	1. The electrons were emitted immediately - no time lag!
	2. Increasing the intensity of the light increased the number of photoelectrons, but not their maximum kinetic energy!
	3. Red light will not cause the ejection of electrons, no matter what the intensity!
	4. A weak violet light will eject only a few electrons, but their maximum kinetic energies are greater than those for intense light of longer wavelengths!

Experiment

Analysis of data from the photoelectric experiment showed that the energy of the ejected electrons was proportional to the frequency of the illuminating light. This showed that whatever was knocking the electrons out had an energy proportional to light frequency. The remarkable fact that the ejection energy was independent of the total energy of illumination showed that the interaction must be like that of a particle which gave all of its energy to the electron! This fit in well with Planck's hypothesis that light in the blackbody radiation experiment could exist only in discrete bundles with energy

E = hν

This equation says that the energy of a particle of light (E), called a photon, is proportional to its frequency (v), by the Plank constant (h). This means that photons with low frequencies, like radio waves, have lower energies than photons with high frequencies, like x-rays.

Wave-Particle Duality: Light

Does light consist of particles or waves? When one focuses upon the different types of phenomena observed with light, a strong case can be built for a wave picture:

Interference

Diffraction

Polarization

By the turn of the 20th century, most physicists were convinced by phenomena lke the above that light could be fully described by a wave, with no necessity for invoking a particle nature. But the story was not over.

Phenomenon	Can be explained in terms of waves.	Can be explained in terms of particles.
Reflection (mirror)
Refraction (glass)
Interference(soap bubbles & oil on pavement)
Diffraction (image is circle with dark band then a light band)
Polarization (planar & circular) sunglasses
Photoelectric effect

Most commonly observed phenomena with light can be explained by waves. But the photoelectric effect suggested a particle nature for light. Then electrons too were found to exhibit dual natures.

3-6: The Hypothesis of Light Quanta
and the Photoelectric Effect


Look up this link Richardson

Average Mean Median and Mode: http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/57602.html

Day 2 - Gavity, Light & Failure of Classical Physics-Homework

1. Discuss the wave/particle theory of Quantum Mechanics.

2. What is electromagnetism?

3. What were J.J. Thompson’s contributions? Why did he get the Nobel Prize?

4. George Thompson won a Nobel Prize in Physics? Why? What ramifications did his work have?

5. Discuss Earnest Rutherford’s contributions and the physicists he inspired or taught. Why are his students important?

6. How did Plank’s constant (ħ) help with understanding the Photoelectric effect?

7. You weigh 72 kilograms on earth, how many pounds do you weigh on the Jupiter? (Jupiter’s gravity is 2.5 times greater than earth).

8. Tie your ankles together with a rope or yarn that is five feet long. Without removing the rope, drop your pants and put them back on inside out. Describe your reactions and understanding throughout this process.

The Basics - Definitions

2008-02-17T18:55:00.014-07:00

AS404 –Day 1

The Goals of this Class:

· Difference between scientific thought and philosophical thought

· Learn the basic definitions used in the scientific community

· Learn the basic theories of Quantum Mechanics

· Learn the basic models of chemical structure and reactions

· Understand the cycles of sugar, fat and carbohydrate metabolism

· How living organisms breakdown, create, store and retrieve energy

Grading & The Final Exam:

· All the reading is required

· 50% of your grade is the final exam

· 50% of your grade is the homework and I take the median.

· Your final exam will be 60 questions answered in 2 hours or less

· Questions will be taken from class lecture, homework and all the readings

· 30% questions on Physics, 30% of the questions on Organic Chemistry and 30% of the questions on Biochemistry.

· You will be expected to memorize chemical structures, models and cycles

Definitions

A Form – An Outline of Powers and Limits - Mathematics

A System – A decision made before the question arises – A method used to answer a question

A Principle – A basic truth or law or assumption – Natural Laws

What is science? Study of the Natural World

What is religion? A strong belief in a supernatural power or powers

Science is about Cosmic Order: Religion is about Cosmic Purpose

What is physics? The study of matter and energy.

What is chemistry? The science of matter; how is matter put together? The branch of the natural sciences dealing with the composition of substances and their properties and reactions.

What is biology? The study of living organisms. A much more complex science. It is dealing with matter that is alive!

What is mathematics? The study of patterns of structure, change, and space

Physics is the foundation of all the other sciences. An understanding of science begins with an understanding of physics.

Scientists answer questions:

Who?

What? 90% populace & media focus on these

When?

Where?

How? Engineers – Take theory and put it into practice - lubrication & adhesion

Why? Scientists – Theoretical and Experimental arenas

Just a note: most of the lecture notes that I use are drawn from other websites, textbooks, and electronic library resources. Please do not take the following lecture notes as original! I have copied, compiled and collated. Basically, I have borrowed from the work of people MUCH smarter than me to bring this information to you. I have made every effort to put links in place to send you to the original web sites where this information came from.

The Four Known Universal Forces

Strong Nuclear Force

Electromagnetism

Weak Nuclear Force

Gravity

The Strong Nuclear Force

· It is the strongest

· It has the shortest distance of influence

· Its main job is to hold together the subatomic particles of the nucleus: called nucleons.

· like charges repel (+ +, or - -), and unlike charges attract (+ -).

· why would the nuclei of these atoms stay together?

· The strong nuclear force is created between nucleons by the exchange of particles called gluons. This exchange can be likened to constantly hitting a ping-pong ball or a tennis ball back and forth between two people. As long as this gluon exchange can happen, the strong force is able to hold the participating nucleons together.

· The nucleons must be extremely close together in order for this exchange to happen. The distance required is about the diameter of a proton or a neutron

· The dotted line surrounding the nucleon being approached represents any electrostatic repulsion that might be present due to the charges of the nucleons/particles that are involved. A particle must be able to cross this barrier in order for the strong force to "glue" the particles together

· In the case of approaching protons/nuclei, the closer they get, the more they feel the repulsion from the other proton/nucleus (the electromagnetic force). As a result, in order to get two protons/nuclei close enough to begin exchanging gluons, they must be moving extremely fast (which means the temperature must be really high), and/or they must be under immense pressure so that they are forced to get close enough to allow the exchange of gluons to create the strong force.

· Now, back to the nucleus. One thing that helps reduce the repulsion between protons within a nucleus is the presence of any neutrons. Since they have no charge they don't add to the repulsion already present, and they help separate the protons from each other so they don't feel as strong a repulsive force from any other nearby protons. Also, the neutrons are a source of more strong force for the nucleus since they participate in the meson exchange. These factors, coupled with the tight packing of protons in the nucleus so that they can exchange mesons creates enough strong force to overcome their mutual repulsion and force the nucleons to stay bound together.

· The preceding explanation shows the reason why it is easier to bombard a nucleus with neutrons than with protons. Since the neutrons have no charge, as they approach a positively charged nucleus they will not feel any repulsion. They therefore can easily "break" the electrostatic repulsion barrier to being exchanging mesons with the nucleus, thus becoming incorporated into it.

Electromagnetism

One of the four fundamental forces, the electromagnetic force manifests itself through the forces between charges (Coulomb's Law) and the magnetic force, both of which are summarized in the Lorentz force law. Fundamentally, both magnetic and electric forces are manifestations of an exchange force involving the exchange of photons . The quantum approach to the electromagnetic force is called quantum electrodynamics or QED. The electromagnetic force is a force of infinite range which obeys the inverse square law, and is of the same form as the gravity force.

The electromagnetic force holds atoms and molecules together. In fact, the forces of electric attraction and repulsion of electric charges are so dominant over the other three fundamental forces that they can be considered to be negligible as determiners of atomic and molecular structure. Even magnetic effects are usually apparent only at high resolutions, and as small corrections.

Weak Nuclear Force

One of the four fundamental forces, the weak interaction involves the exchange of the intermediate vector bosons, the W and the Z. Since the mass of these particles is on the order of 80 GeV, the uncertainty principle dictates a range of about 10^-18 meters which is about 0.1% of the diameter of a proton.

The weak interaction changes one flavor of quark into another. It is crucial to the structure of the universe in that

1. The sun would not burn without it since the weak interaction causes the transmutation p -> n so that deuterium can form and deuterium fusion can take place.

2. It is necessary for the buildup of heavy nuclei.

The role of the weak force in the transmutation of quarks makes it the interaction involved in many decays of nuclear particles which require a change of a quark from one flavor to another. It was in radioactive decay such as beta decay that the existence of the weak interaction was first revealed. The weak interaction is the only process in which a quark can change to another quark, or a lepton to another lepton - the so-called "flavor changes".

The discovery of the W and Z particles in 1983 was hailed as a confirmation of the theories which connect the weak force to the electromagnetic force in electroweak unification.

The weak interaction acts between both quarks and leptons, whereas the strong force does not act between leptons. "Leptons have no color, so they do not participate in the strong interactions; neutrinos have no charge, so they experience no electromagnetic forces; but all of them join in the weak interactions."(Griffiths)

Beta Radioactivity

Beta particles are just electrons from the nucleus, the term "beta particle" being an historical term used in the early description of radioactivity. The high energy electrons have greater range of penetration than alpha particles, but still much less than gamma rays. The radiation hazard from betas is greatest if they are ingested.

Beta emission is accompanied by the emission of an electron antineutrino which shares the momentum and energy of the decay.

The emission of the electron's antiparticle, the positron, is also called beta decay. Beta decay can be seen as the decay of one of the neutrons to a proton via the weak interaction. The use of a weak interaction Feynman diagram can clarify the process.

Gravity

Gravity is the weakest of the four fundamental forces, yet it is the dominant force in the universe for shaping the large scale structure of galaxies, stars, etc. The gravitational force between two masses m₁ and m₂ is given by the relationship:

This is often called the "universal law of gravitation" and G the universal gravitation constant. It is an example of an inverse square law force. The force is always attractive and acts along the line joining the centers of mass of the two masses. The forces on the two masses are equal in size but opposite in direction, obeying Newton's third law. Viewed as an exchange force, the massless exchange particle is called the graviton.

The gravity force has the same form as Coulomb's law for the forces between electric charges, i.e., it is an inverse square law force which depends upon the product of the two interacting sources. This led Einstein to start with the electromagnetic force and gravity as the first attempt to demonstrate the unification of the fundamental forces. It turns out that this was the wrong place to start, and that gravity will be the last of the forces to unify with the other three forces. Electroweak unification (unification of the electromagnetic and weak forces) was demonstrated in 1983, a result which could not be anticipated in the time of Einstein's search. It now appears that the common form of the gravity and electromagnetic forces arises from the fact that each of them involves an exchange particle of zero mass, not because of an inherent symmetry which would make them easy to unify.

Examples of Trajectories

Common misconceptions about guns:

A dropped bullet will hit the ground before one which is fired from a gun.

As shown in the illustration of a horizontal launch, gravity acts the same way on both bullets, giving them the same downward acceleration and making them strike the ground at the same time if the bullet is fired horizontally over level ground.

Bullets fired from high-powered rifles drop only a few inches in hundreds of yards.

Fired at twice the speed of sound, a bullet will drop over 3 inches in 100 yards, and at 300 yards downrange will have dropped about 30 inches. Plug in numbers into the bullet drop calculation to see for yourself. Ammunition manufacturers contribute to this misconception by stating the drop of their projectiles as just the extra drop caused by frictional drag compared to an ideal frictionless projectile.

Drop of a Bullet

If air friction is neglected, then the drop of a bullet fired horizontally can be treated as an ordinary horizontal trajectory. The air friction is significant, so this is an idealization.

Inverse Square Law, General

Any point source which spreads its influence equally in all directions without a limit to its range will obey the inverse square law. This comes from strictly geometrical considerations. The intensity of the influence at any given radius r is the source strength divided by the area of the sphere. Being strictly geometric in its origin, the inverse square law applies to diverse phenomena. Point sources of gravitational force, electric field, light, sound or radiation obey the inverse square law. It is a subject of continuing debate with a source such as a skunk on top of a flag pole; will it's smell drop off according to the inverse square law?

Inverse Square Law, Gravity

As one of the fields which obey the general inverse square law, the gravity field can be put in the form shown below, showing that the acceleration of gravity, g, is an expression of the intensity of the gravity field.

Inverse Square Law, Electric

As one of the fields which obey the general inverse square law, the electric field of a point charge can be put in the form shown below where point charge Q is the source of the field. The electric force in Coulomb's law follows the inverse square law.

Inverse Square Law, Radiation

As one of the fields which obey the general inverse square law, a point radiation source can be characterized by the relationship below whether you are talking about Roentgens , rads, or rems . All measures of exposure will drop off by inverse square law.

The source is described by a general "source strength" S because there are many ways to characterize a radiation source - by grams of a radioactive isotope, source strength in Curies, etc. For any such description of the source, if you have determined the amount of radiation per unit area reaching 1 meter, then it will be one fourth as much at 2 meters.

Homework Day 1 -Quantum Mechanics

1. Define the differences and similarities of a Confederation, a Democracy, a Republic and how they interact with the populations of people under them.

2. Define Science and Religion. Explain the different methods used by each to obtain knowledge. Are there any similarities?

3. Define Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Biochemistry and Mathematics. How do these disciplines build upon one another?

4. Define Classical Physics and Quantum Mechanics. Explain the challenges that Einstein had with Newton’s work and what he had to do to overcome preexisting paradigms.

5. What was the Copenhagen Interpretation and who was involved? Why was Einstein so upset by this?

6. What are the four known forces in our Universe? Give examples of what they do and how they interact with matter.

7. What is the difference between Average, Mean, Median and Mode?

8. What is a positive charge? A negative charge? Why was Benjamin Franklin’s assignments “unfortunate”?

Periodic Table of Desserts

2007-10-24T22:22:00.002-06:00

I have to thank a geek girlfriend of mine, Alison from North Carolina who submitted this "did-you-know" link. A place of posters that you can order which present the Periodic table of desserts, vegetables, fruits and endangered species. A super cool place to wander for Christmas presents. This is just an FYI when you're having a hard time finding that just-right gift for your scientific friend (or is that fiend?)

Enjoy!

Geek Think: How Scientists Approach the World

2007-10-17T20:14:00.001-06:00

Almost there, aren’t we? Congratulations. Now, at last, it is time to consider why you have been taking this class.

A few facts about chemistry is one good reason. Learning how to think like a scientist is the other.

Today we will be addressing the second point, the fine art of honing the geek mind. We will approach this subject by example, by going through the experiment that was assigned a couple of sessions ago. The following little piece constitutes my own effort at completing the task, with a few editorial comments thrown into spice the stew. Naturally in the normal order of things all of this would be recorded in a laboratory notebook so that you could sign and date the entries, to protect your important insights from competitors in the Alka-Seltzer analysis field. You will just have to settle for reading about it on line.

Let’s start with HYPOTHESES. I came up with two:

Two-tailed: Altering the reaction temperature will alter the reaction rate.

One-Tailed: The reaction will increase as the reaction temperature rises.

A two-tailed hypothesis is one that makes no assumption about what outcome will occur (i.e., a rising reaction temperature will alter the rate either up or down), while a one-tailed hypothesis picks a specific way in which you think the outcome may trend.

The next thing a good experiment needs is a list of MATERIALS. I include separate headings for reagents (the stuff that participates in and/or is consumed during the chemical reaction – in this case Alka-Seltzer and water) and equipment to perform the experiment (clear glass, 1-cup measuring cup, watch with second hand, thermometer). The materials list is followed by a really detailed, step-by-step set of METHODS. One must pay great attention to detail in this section so that (1) you can catch any mistakes you have made in running the experiment and (2) so that other people can replicate your work. In science, if it can’t be repeated is not considered reputable. The methods I used for this experiment were, in order, the following:

1. Alka-Seltzer tablets were unwrapped two at a time.

2. Water was prepared as follows:

a. Cold (~0°C): Four 1-in³ ice cubes were added to four cups of water and left for 15 minutes

b. Normal (~20°C) Four cups of water were decanted from a receptacle after sitting for 24 hours at room temperature

c. Hot (~100°C) Four cups of tap water were heated to boiling in a teapot

3. The glass was equilibrated to the desired water temperature by pre-filling with either ice water or hot water.

4. One cup of water at the appropriate temperature was placed in the glass. A 1-in³ ice cube was added to the “cold trials” to keep the water cold.

5. A single tablet was dropped from a 2-inch height into the vessel.

6. Time (in seconds) to complete dissolution of the primary tablet (i.e., the end of violent fizzing) was recorded.

7. Ancillary (“other”) measurements included observations on tablet motility and gas evolution.

Of course, the point of an experiment is to get some RESULTS. These are the ones I got. I put them into a table so that the raw data (the values measured during all the trials) would be available for inspection. Then I calculated the mean (the average) of the results for each temperature so that someone wanting to quickly see the outcome would be able to do so at a glance.

	Temperature
Trial	0°C	20°C	100°C
1	87 s	47 s	34 s
2	100 s	45 s	33 s
3	80 s	49 s	32 s
4	66 s	49 s	32 s
Mean	**83	48	**33
SD	14	2	1

The double asterisks (**) denote that the mean values for these two groups are significantly different from the mean value for the 20°C group, p < style=""> (Normally, statistical significance is assigned to an outcome if p <>

I made a few additional observations on characteristics of Alka-Seltzer. These traits were not the focus of my hypotheses, so I did not measure them exactly. However, I made some reasonable “guesstimates” regarding their repeatability so that I could investigate them in more detail.

1. Tablet motility varied by temperature. Tablet orientation became:

a. Cold (~0°C): Vertical at 45 to 50 s

Floated at 55 to 60 s

b. Normal (~20°C) Vertical at 15 to 20 s

Floated at 20 to 25 s

c. Hot (~100°C) Vertical orientation not seen

Floated immediately

2. Tablet character upon cessation of fizzing.

a. Cold (~0°C): Many small particles and much foam cover most of the surface

b. Normal (~20°C) A few fine particles and some foam line the rim of the glass

c. Hot (~100°C) No particles or foam remain

3. Gas evolution varied by temperature.

a. Cold (~0°C): Fine bubbles made from top of tablet, large ones from beneath

b. Normal (~20°C) Fine bubbles made from top and bottom of tablet

c. Hot (~100°C) Myriad fine bubbles from entire surface of tablet, as well as elaboration of steam from upper surface

Finally, you use the results to make an INTERPRETATION. This step is also called drawing conclusions or making inferences. In this case, my results confirmed the hypotheses I made: the rate of a chemical reaction is significantly increased as the reaction temperature is raised.

A word on STATISTICS. Mark Twain popularized the Benjamin Disraeli proverb, “There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics.” This statement is knocking statistics, but those who would use a mass of poorly understand numbers – even if correctly calculated – to support an inaccurate conclusion. Scientists rely on statistics to avoid false positive and false negative conclusions. A false positive or Type I error occurs when the statistical calculation suggests that something is of significance but in reality it is not, while a false negative or Type II error occurs when something significant in the real world is not identified as such using the statistical analysis. In general, scientists tend to try to avoid the Type I error more vigorously. A detailed consideration of statistics s way, way, way beyond the scope of this blog. Just keep in mind that statistical calculations can be used by different scientists working on the same problem to bolster totally opposite points of view. Just because a number is thrown at you, don’t believe that the “answer” it is trying to reinforce is true. The concept caveat emptor – “Let the buyer beware” – is particularly true in science. Be open to new ideas, but be skeptical about adopting them without a thorough review of the data for yourself.

Sleep tight. It all ends tomorrow. The class, I mean….

The Universe Within: Quantum Chemistry

2007-10-16T05:52:00.000-06:00

Halfway there after today, folks. Hang in there.

The topic for this morning is a continuation of the periodic table, particularly the chemical properties of the major elements and the subatomic structure of the atomic nucleus.

The main topic to consider in mastering the modern periodic table in its relationship to quantum mechanics is how to describe electrons in the nucleus. Each electron has a unique address in the electron cloud, a position in an orbital. Each orbital, or shell, is a wave function describing the likely location of electrons based on the lowest possible energy state of the nucleus. We cannot know precisely where any given electron is in an orbital as stated in the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, but we can still describe it numerically. Modern quantum theory holds that each electron orbits the nucleus in a specific shell and sub-shell with a given orientation. Thus, each electron has a unique “address” composed of four quantum numbers.

The principal quantum number, n, defines the shell in which the electron resides. Values of n are positive, non-zero integers. The shells with n = 1, n = 2, and n = 3 are called the first shell (also called the K shell, for no particular reason), second shell (L shell), and third shell (M shell). The secondary quantum number, l, divides each shell into sub-shells of slightly different energies. For a given orbital n, the l values can range from 0 to (n – 1). Thus, for the first shell (n = 1), the only value of l is 0, and only one sub-shell exists; for the second shell (n = 2), values of l can be 0 or 1, and two sub-shells are present; and so on. The sub-shells are designated by a letter code, where the first (l = 0) is labeled “s”, the second (l = 1) is “p”, the third (l = 2) is d, the fourth (l = 3) is “f”. To designate a particular sub-shell, we write the principal quantum number followed by the letter code for the sub-shell. The lower the sub-shell number, the lower the energy. The third quantum number is known as the magnetic quantum number and is designated m_l. It divides each shell into individual orbitals. Values for m_l can range from +l to –l. Thus, the s sub-shell (l = 0) has a single orbital since +0 and -0 are still just 0, while the p sub-shell (l = 1) has three orbitals (+1, 0, -1). All the orbitals of a given sub-shell have the same energy. The fourth quantum number is the spin quantum number, m_s, which is either + ½ or - ½. The Pauli exclusion principle states that no two electrons in the same atom can have identical values for all four quantum numbers.

Atoms are built from the inside out, by adding electrons to the lowest possible orbital because this is the lowest and therefore most favored energy state. This concept is termed the aufbau principle (German for “building up”). When added to a specific orbital, Hund’s rule states that electrons will spread out as much as possible, avoiding pairing within an orbital for as long as possible.

The interaction of atoms in chemical reactions is dictated by the electron configuration in the outer (or valence) shell. Elements in the same group (column) of the periodic table have similar arrangements of electrons in their valence shell. The valence shells fill as one progresses from left to right in the periodic table, until all positions are occupied in the VIIIA group (noble gases) located farthest to the right. The completely filled valence shell of the noble gases renders them quite unreactive. Many other elements undergo chemical reactions in such a way that their electron configuration tends to assume the same configuration as the nearest noble gas.

Rest well until tomorrow – in body, if not in mind.

The Big Picture: Chemistry Gets Organized

2007-10-14T21:40:00.000-06:00

One day down, four to go. Let’s rock on.

The major topic for the next couple of days is MODERN ATOMIC THEORY. Chemistry did not begin until this principle had gained general acceptance in the early 1800s . The first recorded hypothesis regarding the basic unit of material things is attributed to the pre-Socratic Greek philosopher, Democritus (c. 460–c. 370 B.C.). After his teacher Leucippus had noted that a beach looks smooth from afar but really consists of individual sand grains, Democritus said that the concept could be extended to all matter because material things were made of indivisible particles. Democritus called his particles atomos, meaning "cannot be cut." His ideas were largely ignored until the scientific revolution of the western Enlightenment (16^th to 18^th centuries) due to widespread acceptance of Aristotle’s (c. 384–c. 322 B.C.) view that all matter was comprised of earth, air, water, and fire in varying proportions, and that matter could be transmuted into gold by adjusting the ratios of these four elements. (Aristotle also limited matter to four essential properties: hot, cold, dry, and wet!)

In modern times, atomic theory was rediscovered by John Dalton (1766-1844), an English physical scientist. In the early 1800s he was a professor of mathematics and natural philosophy, and he dedicated his research efforts to standardizing then known chemical knowledge. The result was a series of principles to explain the structure of matter:

Matter consists of tiny particles (atoms).
Atoms are indestructible. In chemical reactions they can rearrange but not break apart.
All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and other properties (true then, as isotopes had not been discovered).
Atoms of different elements differ in mass and other properties.
Elements combined into a given compound always react in a fixed ratio.

The atomic theory provided the impetus for later attempts to develop a unifying principle for all chemistry (and physics!) knowledge, the PERIODIC TABLE. Many scientists in the late 1700s and early 1800s contributed to its theoretical underpinnings, but the laurel for the first modern version goes to Dmitri Mendeleev – to give the most common of the spellings for his name). This Russian chemist is accorded the honor because his array not only attempted to systematize existing chemical knowledge but because he used his model to make predictions about the existence and properties of then unknown elements. Mendeleev arranged his table into columns (groups) and rows (periods) according to elemental atomic weights (representing the mass of protons and neutrons), while modern tables use atomic number (proton number). Entities in a given group or period share certain chemical properties based on their atomic structure, and particularly the number and arrangement of electrons in the outer (or valence) orbital. But more on that tomorrow….

Chemistry Experiment

2007-10-13T09:14:00.000-06:00

Chemistry AS403 – Experiment

Chemical reactions proceed at a set rate, but the rate varies depending on many factors. Environmental conditions in particular have a major impact on the rate at which reactions may proceed.

Undertake the following experiment at home to test this principle.

Buy a box of Alka-Seltzer anti-indigestion medication. This product combines acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin), sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) and citric acid.

You will be conducting an experiment with 3 tablets. Place one tablet in a glass of hot (but not boiling) water, another in a glass of ice-cold water, and a third in a glass filled with water that is at room temperature. Measure how long the fizzing continues in each glass after dropping the tablet.

Prior to the experiment, construct hypotheses about (1) the likely outcome and (2) the mechanism by which the fizzing is produced. After gathering data, interpret your results, design any follow-up experiments that might be needed to refine the data, and make a list of factors that might have impacted the accuracy of your experiment.

Feel free to use the left-over Alka-Seltzer to sooth your heartburn....

Simulation on Public Policy

2007-10-13T09:10:00.000-06:00

Chemistry AS403 – Simulation

Washington, D.C.

Spring, 2019. The one bright spot in the usual atmosphere of political infighting and intrigue is public contentment with the austere homeland security policies that finally succeeded in interdicting illegal immigration across the nation’s 2000-mile southern border beginning in 2013. This success was achieved through the combined use of multiple electrified fences backed by solid concrete walls, with regular defoliation of the intervening no-man’s-land between the barriers using biodegradable herbicides.

In 2014, the United States had suffered a severe bout of inflation due to the rise in wages associated with the loss of several million “guest” workers, while Mexico underwent a major recession due to many factory closures stemming from the loss of major American markets. Mexico responded by suspending diplomatic relations with the United States. Relations were restored in 2017 thanks to the efforts of the newly elected Administration, which moved rapidly to restore free trade (but not immigration). Mexican factories in border towns were reopened, and the adjacent border became the main route for transporting Mexican goods to the eager American consumer. The entire free trade zone along the Texas – Mexican border developed almost overnight into an economic powerhouse to rival the success of South Korea and Taiwan. Communities on both sides of the border are benefiting by the rapid increase in employment, income levels, and public services. The flagship accomplishments touted by governmental officials in both nations are ample schools and libraries, low-cost medical clinics, and careful environmental stewardship.

Despite the promise, a concern for the region’s population is the rising number of birth defects in infants and cancers in people of all ages. The problem has been smoldering for nearly three decades, but in the last five years the incidence has accelerated rapidly. The local economies are in danger of collapse as potential workers avoid relocation to the region while the incumbent population seeks to leave.

You are a member of a bilateral public policy commission tasked with identifying likely cause of the epidemic and pinpointing means by which the threat may be ended. Develop one or more hypotheses regarding the cause of the problem. Design the necessary tests to verify or negate the hypotheses, keeping in mind both scientific considerations and ancillary concerns (e.g., cost and international relations). Prepare a brief for delivery to the President outlining your hypotheses, proposed experiments (both initial and follow-up), and likely recommendations for dealing with the scenario.

Fundamentals of Chemistry, Day #1 Lecture Notes

2007-10-13T09:03:00.000-06:00

Chemistry AS403 – Lecture 1 Notes: Fundamentals of Chemistry

Okay, let the good times roll. Today we cover the basic tools one needs to start taking a crack at chemistry.

Let’s start with VOCABULARY, some simple definitions that will put all of us on the same page as the game gets underway. In alphabetical order:

Accuracy = closeness of a measured value to the true value
Atom = the smallest particle of an element (Gr. atomos = “uncut”)
Chemistry = a science that investigates the composition of materials and how their properties change by their environment
Compound = substance combining fixed proportions of 2 or more elements
Density = ratio of an object’s mass to its volume
Element = a substance that cannot break into a simpler one
Energy = a quality allowing an object to do work. The two main classes:

Kinetic = energy in a moving object
Potential = stored energy (which can be converted to kinetic type)

Heat = energy that is transferred among objects with different temperatures
Law = a broad generalization known by experimentation to be true for all people and all times
Mass = the quantity (NOT weight!) of a given substance
Matter = anything that occupies space and has mass
Mixture = material combining variable proportions of 2 or more substances
Molecule = Smallest particle of a compound
Precision = closeness of repeated measurements to each other
Property = characteristics unique to a given substance. Two types are:

Chemical = trait that can change as a substance reacts with others
Physical = trait that can be observed without changing the substance

Specific gravity = ratio of a substance’s density to that of water
Temperature = property proportional to the average kinetic energy
Theory = a well-tested explanation of a natural phenomenon
Weight = the force with which a substance is attracted by gravity

Once we have a common lingo, we need some other COMMON PROCEDURES. Chemists, indeed all scientists, use the following tools each and every day. The “Big Three” pieces in the tool kit are the International System of Units (SI), Significant Figures, and Scientific Notation.

The SI scheme offers standard units of measurement for seven basic quantities. The most common in the chemistry laboratory are for length (meter, m); mass (kilogram, kg); time (second, s); temperature (kelvin, K); and amount (mole, mol). The base units can be modified by adding prefixes and suffixes, the most typical of which are mega (10⁶, M); kilo (10³, k); centi (10^-2, c), milli (10^-3, m), micro (10-6, m), and nano (10^-9, n). Conversion factors are used when necessary to convert between the various units. Examples for length and volume (with derived units of length cubed) include:

1 m = 100 cm = 1000 mm

1 m³ = 1000 L (where L = liter)

1 L = 1000 cm³ = 1000 mL

Significant figures are those which have been accurately derived by careful measurements. The number of significant figures in a measured value is equal to the number of digits known for certain plus one that is not totally certain. The higher number of significant figures, the greater the degree of precision.

Scientific notation is a shortcut for writing very large or very small numbers. In science, the standard use is to write numbers to base 10, using exponents. As an example, an electron (a very small subatomic particle) has a mass of about 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 910 kg. In scientific notation, this number is rendered as 9.10 x 10⁻³¹ kg. Simple rules for working with exponents allow scientists to manipulate numbers easily when working with minute samples and very rapid reactions.

Chemistry is Your Friend; Introduction Lecture Notes

2007-10-12T16:00:00.001-06:00

Chemistry AS403 – Notes for Introductory Lecture

Breathe. Breathe again. Now, repeat after me: “Remain calm, all is well.”

Welcome to Purgatory, or as I like to call it Chemistry for the Scientifically Reluctant. In the next few sessions, we will take an all-too-brief tour through the wonders of the chemical world.

Why should you come along for the ride? Because your entire existence – body, home, street, community, Earth itself – rises and falls on the basis of the chemical reactions that occur around and within you. Chemistry is your friend, even if you feel that chemistry class is not….

We’ll start the tour with INTRODUCTIONS. Your tour guide/persecutor is Brad Bolon, professional science geek (experimental pathologist and medical writer). I get to torment you with chemistry because

(1) I am a reasonably adept apprentice-level chemist, having about 1000 hours of lecture and lab in the field during the course of my professional education, and

(2) the other topic for this course was physics, which causes my brain cells to short-circuit.

You know who you are (I hope).

The next introductory item is to define HOW SCIENCE FITS INTO THE “REAL” WORLD. “Real” in this context means “material” or “natural” or “physical.” We will approach this question as a scientist would, by constructing a theoretical model off which to bounce our subsequent experiments. Based on lots of years in college (13!) and living in this world (45), my model for gathering and using knowledge emphasizes several different epistemologies. (An epistemology is a system by which we know that something is true.) There are several different epistemologies with relevance to the modern world, and most of us use more than one in the course of our daily lives. Examples include Revelation (“God told me so”), Reason (“it just makes logical sense”), and Tradition (“we have done it that way in the past”). The main epistemology of modern science is Empiricism (“we did an experiment, and this is how the world works”). Put them all together, and my current model of the world looks like the picture above.

To keep us on the same page, to me “hard” science means disciplines that emphasize physical experiments (astronomy, biology, chemistry, mathematics, medicine, physics) while “soft” science means fields where the results depend on unpredictable responses of individual human beings (economics, history, politics, psychology).

Please note that human beings are engaged in acquiring knowledge in all these realms. By definition, humans have opinions of their own, so subjectivity enters into everything that they do. The difference between experiment-based science (whether “hard” or “soft”) is that the only aim is objectivity, so the practitioners strive to remove as much bias as possible when doing their work.

The next introductory topic is to ACING THE HARD SCIENCES. Success in studying science is not easy – it’s not called “hard” science for nothing! – but the goal is attainable. All it takes is self-discipline and a logical approach. I used a 7-step process in my own science education, and I still use it daily as in my work as a scientist. The 7 keys are simple, not rocket science:

(1) Read the textbook the night before class. Yep, I hate to break it to you, but science classics are almost always textbooks. The reason is that science builds on itself over time. In general, about 50% of the stuff printed in current science magazines will prove to be wrong a decade or two from now, while the principles in modern textbooks represent concepts that most scientists believe to be true. So why read the textbook before class? Remember, science builds on itself – in this case, by repetition. The more times you are presented with a concept, the better you will understand it and recall it.

(2) Annotate what you have read. Take notes in the margin of the book or on a separate sheet of paper. Ask questions. Write your own lecture. The act of writing helps your brain to better remember what you have read.

(3) Listen to the lecture. This key is simple, if you show up and maintain some degree of consciousness. It’s even easier if you have read the book before coming to class….

(4) Read the textbook a second time. Not to be a nag, but repetition is good when studying science.

(5) Do the homework. The professor did not dispense problems to you just to torture you. (That is just a side benefit.) The assignment was given because the only way to truly understand a scientific principle is to work with it.

(6) Read more stuff. Don’t just read the assigned pages in the textbook. Read ahead, or reread relevant pages from previous chapters. Look for other presentations regarding the same topic on the Internet. The idea is to give your brain as many different versions of a new principle as are necessary for the concept to finally penetrate.

(7) Repeat as needed. (Duh.)

The thing about science is that it really is hard. People don’t subject themselves to this degree of torture voluntarily unless they are geeky enough to really enjoy the challenge. Maybe you qualify as a science geek, maybe not. Regardless, don’t make the task more difficult on yourself than it has to be.

Star Trek Party!!!!

2007-10-12T15:48:00.000-06:00

The Gardner's were kind enough to suggest that we have a Star Trek Party on Saturday evening starting at 8pm. We will be in the main classroom at GWC with a projector to watch the very first episode of Deep Space 9! This episode has some excellent stuff on how we humans view time as linear and how the fabric of space-time is bent and molded into a stable wormhole.

It is the best of physics theory and just plain fun to watch. Make sure to get here early so you get a good seat. I'll be bring popcorn and we'll have other finger foods as well.

I look forward to seeing you there!

Lecture #5: The Properties of Light & Color

2007-10-11T21:45:00.000-06:00

Time, Space and Light. Visible Light makes up such a small part of the spectrum, but there is still so much mystery and wonder about it all.

Question: Is a radio wave also a sound wave?

Answer: No, radio waves are part of the Electromagnetic Spectrum and sound waves are mechanical productions of air being pushed.

What is light? Technically, we don’t know. But we have some really fine theories that work well mathematically to give us close approximations.

Light is energy carried in an electromagnetic wave that emanates from vibrating electrons in atoms.

Visible light vibrates at a very high rate, some 100 trillion times per second (10¹⁴ Hertz). Light has an approximate speed of 300,000 km/s or 186,000 miles/sec.

UV light is responsible for sunburns due to its high frequency and clouds are semi-transparent to UV that is how you get burnt on a cloudy day.

Question: Why are lunar eclipses more commonly seen then solar eclipses?

Answer: The shadow of the relatively small moon on the large earth covers a very small part of the earth’s surface. Only a relatively few people are in shadow of the moon in a solar eclipse. But the shadow of the earth completely covers the moon during a total lunar eclipse so everybody who views the nighttime sky can see the shadow of the earth on the moon.

Light enters the human eye through the transparent cover called the cornea, which does about 70% of the necessary bending of light before it passes through the pupil. The light then passes through the lens, which is used only to provide the extra bending power needed to focus images of nearby objects on the layer at the back of the eye. There is also a spot in the retina where all the nerves carrying all the information exit; this is the blind spot.

The size of your pupils depends on your mood. Poker players have unwittingly given themselves away when they had a good hand by the size of their pupils!
Why is the sky blue?

A beam of light falls on an atom and causes the electrons in the atom to vibrate. The vibrating electrons, in turn, re-emit light in various directions. Light is scattered. This is known as Rayleigh Scattering. The shorter the wavelength of light the more light is scattered.

Why are sunsets red?

The lower frequencies of light are scattered the least by nitrogen and oxygen molecules, the primary component of our atmosphere. Therefore red, orange, and yellow light are transmitted through the atmosphere much more than violet or blue. Red, which is scattered the least, passes through more atmosphere than any other color.

Reflection and Refraction

Light interacts with atoms as sound interacts with tuning forks.

The Principle of Least Time – stated in 1650 by Pierre Fermat, Out of all possible paths that light might take to get from one point to another, it takes the path that requires the shortest time.

Index of refraction (n) = speed of light in vacuum divided by the speed of light in material

The Joy of Flames, Sound and Salt!

2007-10-11T14:40:00.001-06:00

These two YouTube Videos are great for demonstrating classical physics in action using the mechanical form of sound. The fire one is terrific because it’s FIRE, man! The second one is lovely because it shows how the salt/sand is being made into fractals at higher and higher frequencies!

Rubin’s Tube: The Physics of Music

Seeing Sound, Geeks Make Art

Lecture #4 Notes: Electromagnetism

2007-10-10T15:37:00.001-06:00

Benjamin Franklin – Tamer of Zeus due to his ability to harness lightening with the use of the lightening rod. A book is out with the appropriate title, "Stealing God's Thunder."

In current mainstream physics, a Theory of Everything would unify all the fundamental interactions of nature, which are usually considered to be four in number: gravity, the strong nuclear force, the weak nuclear force, and the electromagnetic force. The expected pattern of theories is:

Theory of Everything

Gravity

Electronuclear force (GUT)

Michael Faraday – (p.80) Universe on a T-Shirt, “When Faraday was born; messages traveled no faster than horses or ships could carry them; by the time of his death, information could be sent across continents and oceans as fast as it could be typed or read. Electromagnetism as a science did not exist before 1820; by the end of the century it had changed the face of the world.”

Electricity – is a general term for a variety of phenomena resulting from the presence and flow of electric charge

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Van Allen Radiation Belts

The inner ring is 3000km from earth

The outer ring is 15000km from earth

In spite of the earth’s protective magnetic field, many cosmic rays reach the earth’s surface. It is greatest at the poles because the particles do not travel across the magnetic field lines, but along the field lines and are not deflected. This creates the aurora borealis lighting in the sky caused by charged particles in the Van Allen belts striking atmospheric molecules.

Anti-matter:
First created in 1990 and has since been confirmed in it’s creation by multiple accelerators. Antimatter is currently the most valuable substance in existence, with an estimated worth of $300 billion per milligram. This is because production is difficult (only a few atoms are produced in reactions in particle accelerators) and because there is higher demand for the other uses of particle accelerators.

Lecture Notes, Day 3: Gravity, Weight and Thermodynamics

2007-10-09T22:29:00.000-06:00

Dealing with Euclidean Space

Vector addition in Euclidean space. Dealing with the combination of motions and a parallelogram of force.

One essential property with Euclidean space is flatness. As soon as the space is NOT flat the geometry goes non-Euclidean. For example, the surface of a sphere is non-Euclidean; a triangle on a sphere (suitably defined) will have angles that sum to something greater than 180 degrees. In fact, there is essentially only one Euclidean space of each dimension, while there are many non-Euclidean spaces of each dimension.

p.19 of the handout…when dealing with equations on the page that are written out in English, use symbols in the margins to work out the details. Get used to making sentences into equations when forces, matter, energy and distances are being discussed. Example: the surface area of a sphere is directly proportional to the square of its radius. Make sure to write this out on the side of the paragraph as: A α r²

Perihelion precession of Mercury (footnote on page 19 of handout) The exceptions to Newton’s laws are few. However, when we have them, they take new mathematics to solve the differences in gravitational effects and space-time warping. One such problem child was Mercury’s orbit. Some of the theories used to explain Mercury’s curious perturbation was that there was another planet closer to the Sun and it was even given a name, Vulcan. Thanks to the discoverer of Neptune (French mathematician Urbain Le Verrier). He thought the same method could be used for explaining the weird movements of Mercury. No such luck!

In Newtonian physics, a lone object orbiting a spherical mass would trace out an ellipse with the spherical mass at a focus. The point of closest approach, called the perihelion in the solar system, is fixed. There are a number of solar system effects that cause the perihelion of a planet to precess, or rotate around the sun. These are mainly because of the presence of other planets, which perturb orbits. Another effect is solar oblateness, which produces only a minor contribution.

The precession of the perihelion of Mercury was a longstanding problem in celestial mechanics. Careful observations of Mercury showed that the actual value of the precession disagreed with that calculated from Newton's theory by 43 seconds of arc per century, which was much larger than the experimental error at the time. However, the problem was resolved by Einstein's theory, which predicted exactly the observed amount of perihelion shift. This was a powerful factor motivating the adoption of Einstein's theory.

p. 21 of the handout explains stresses, strain and elasticity of matter. Can anyone find a few videos on the web that demonstrate the elasticity of matter as forces of stress are in operation? I’ve seen them used on PBS documentaries where you actually see a spherical baseball flatten itself against the bat and then “snap back” into its original form after it is hit by the bat. It totally rocks!

How to measure Gravitational Forces to assist Newton with his gravitational constant.
Robert Hooke created Hooke’s Law to explain: The strain is proportional to the stress. And this principle can be applied to twisting forces by means of a torsion balance. Thanks to Henry Cavendish for his delicate torsion balance that gave us a number to use! We now use an even more exact figure than Cavendish was able to measure; G=6.67 x 10^-11m³/kg-sec²

How Much Do You Weigh?

Centripetal Force - The force directed inward to a rotating body

Centrifugal Force – The force directed outward from a rotating body

These two forces acting together on the earth as it spins on its axis give it an oblate spherical shape.

This causes the measurement of weight to be different if one is located at the poles or at the equator. If you want to weigh less, move to Alaska! The way scientists have managed to negate the differences in gravitational effects is by calibrating double-pan balances with known weights.

Thermodynamics

The study of heat requires us to understand the three different scales of temperature that have been created. Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin.

F = 9/5C + 32

C = 5/9(F-32)

K = C + 273 more commonly written as T = t + 273

When building the St. Louis Arch the builders had a dilemma putting in the last block due to temperature changes and steel expansion at mid-day.

This is the coefficient of linear expansion at work.

To get a handle on the coefficient of cubic expansion one can look at the Chernobyl accident of 1986 to determine what happens when huge amounts of liquid are instantaneously turned to steam due to high levels of heat.

The First Law of Thermodynamics:

Whenever heat is added to a system, it transforms to an equal amount of some other form of energy. Or in any process, the total energy of the universe remains constant.

Parallelepiped - is a three-dimensional figure formed by six rectangles.

The Second Law of Thermodynamics:

Heat will never itself flow from a cold object to a hot object. Or it can be stated, Natural systems tend to proceed toward a state of greater disorder.

The Third Law of Thermodynamics:

As temperature approaches absolute zero, the entropy of a system approaches a constant.

Entropy – the measure of the amount of disorder

Here is the diagram I used in class to discuss supercritical fluid

Walking the Solar System

2007-10-09T13:44:00.000-06:00

The Bonus question for Day One's homework was to walk the solar system using the following guide.

Sun - starting point - d=0
Mercury - 10 steps from the sun
Venus - 9 steps from Mercury
Earth - 7 steps from Venus
Mars - 14 paces from Earth
Jupiter - 95 paces from Mars
Saturn - 112 paces from Jupiter
Uranus - 249 paces from Saturn
Neptune - 281 paces from Uranus
Pluto - 242 paces from Neptune...we still honor Pluto as being a part of our solar system despite his recent demotion to dwarf planet status!

In order for you to get credit for having "walked" the solar system, please email me a sentence or two (or paragraph) on your reactions to this exercise. Out of 25 students I have only 4 of you that gave me responses to this experiment. I know that more of you have done this, but just forgot to hand it in. Please email me with your reactions or turn them in on a separate sheet of paper in class tomorrow so you get this easy bonus credit.
Thanks!

Lecture #2 Notes: Mechanics, Matter and Motion

2007-10-08T21:28:00.000-06:00

A bit of history and some numbers too!

Pre-Socratics – gave birth to science since they looked for logical answers to the natural world without turning to myth and gods.

Thales of Miletus – Suggested that water is the essential substance of the Universe. Predicted a solar eclipse in 585 BC. He probably used Babylonian tables. He was the Einstein of his day.

Anaximander of Miletus (610-545 B.C.)– Defined the primary ingredient of the cosmos as apieron, or “the indefinite” primordial chaos of our beginnings.

Pythagoras of Samos (530 B.C.)– Numbers were the underlying foundation of reality.

Parmenides of Elea (480 B.C.) – All being is eternal and that change is impossible. (the phenomena of movement and change are simply appearances of a static, eternal reality. Essentially argued that there was no void.

Empedocles of Acragas (440 B.C.) – Universe stems from four root elements: fire, air, water, and earth. Aristotle considered him the father of rhetoric. He leaped into a Volcano! In 2006 a huge underwater volcano off the coast of Sicily was named after him.

Aristarchus of Samos (Greek Copernicus) (250 B.C.)– Originated the heliocentric hypothesis (according to Archimedes) He had both identified the central fire with the Sun, as well as putting other planets in correct order from the Sun. His astronomical ideas were rejected in favor of the geocentric theories of Aristotle and Ptolemy until they were successfully revived and extensively developed by Copernicus nearly 2000 years later.

Archimedes of Syracuse (287-121 B. C.)– In the ranks of Isaac Newton and Einstein regarding mathematics. Invented many machines before his time along with the lever. Killed by a Roman Soldier during the Second Punic War. A theoretical mathematician. We used his mathematical theory to create 2-D maps from spheres.

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Romans (200 BC to 400AD) Roman Numerals would dominate Europe for over 2,000years!

Not one roman mathematician is celebrated today. Lack of curiosity for big numbers.

Mnemonic helps to recall the order of Roman numerals from big to small.

My Dear Cat Loves Xtra Vitamins Intensely

Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy (165AD) Almagest – Geocentric model. It would survive for 14 centuries.

Why?

Augustine of Hippo (400AD) would say it best.

“It is enough for Christians to believe that the only cause of all created things is the goodness of the Creator.”

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India – 450 AD – Zero my hero makes an appearance. Muslim Scholars – created algebra, quadratic equations, and trigonometry. These numbers use the base 10.

Leonardo of Pisa (1200) – Italian Mathematician called Fibonacci took the base 10 numerals to Europe. It too 500 years for Roman and Arabic numerals to battle it out for dominance.

Copernicus (1540) was the first to suggest an Infinite Universe and it would take 70 years before Kepler (1620) would determine that the real orbit of the planets were elliptical and not circular.

Galileo (1632) Rejected Kepler’s model of ellipses but came up with the Law of Inertia:

Objects not acted on by a force travel in straight lines at constant speeds. Or if they are at rest they stay at rest. His theory of all objects falling at the same rate despite whether they were heavy or light could not be tested during his time because there was no way to create a vacuum to test the matter. See the Apollo 15 Experiment done in Galileo’s honor.

Gottfried Leibniz (1700) created the binary system. “On the Art of Combination” Wanted a universal language using symbols. He came across a copy of the “I Ching” which discussed the Universe as a progression of contradictory dualities with a series of yes/no possibilities.

Only numbers we needed were 0 and 1
created a stepped wheel calculator, but never built his binary machine
Binary is also the smallest numbering system available
Based in all computers.

The number 15 (1111)

128	64	32	16	8	4	2	1
				1	1	1	1

The number 40 would read (101000)

128	64	32	16	8	4	2	1
		1	0	1	0	0	0

The number 200 would read (11001000)

128	64	32	16	8	4	2	1
1	1	0	0	1	0	0	0

Dealing with Mass and Motion

What is mass? The amount of matter in an object.

What is matter? The “stuff” of which physical objects are composed (however, go to Wikipedia and look up this definition.) Technically, this has not been defined in physics.

Elemental Particle Physicists are still arguing.

What is weight? The force upon an object due to gravity.

Inertia is the property of an object to remain at constant velocity unless acted upon by an outside force.

What is speed? The distance a moving object has traveled over a period of time.

Instantaneous speed
Average speed

Average speed = total distance covered/ time interval

If we drive 80km in an hour, we say our average speed was 80km/hr. If we travel 320km in 4 hours we say 320km/4h = 80 km/h.

What is Velocity? It is speed and the direction of motion. Velocity brings in the vector quantity.

Acceleration: change of velocity / time interval (Think Galileo and his inclined planes.)

How far does something travel in free fall? d= ½ gt²

Distance is equal to one half times the acceleration of free fall times the time of the fall squared.

Newton’s Laws of Motion

First Law: (Law of Inertia): An object continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed upon it.

Second Law: The force acting on an object is equal to the product of the object’s mass and acceleration. (F=ma)

Third Law: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Check out the desk toy, Newton’s Cradle, sometime as a reference.

The Law of Universal Gravitation: The gravitational force between two objects is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. (F=Gm₁m₂/r²).

Newton’s laws of motion he used them to derive Kepler’s laws of planetary motion and in one fell swoop demonstrated that planets obey the same laws as everything else! Thus Newton created the branch of Physics known as Mechanics – the science that seeks to understand the behavior of objects as they interact among each other by forces.

Newton’s laws cannot be proven, they can only be postulated and then tested experimentally.

Newton’s first and third laws may be considered hypotheses open to test whereas the second law is really a definition.

The Early Universe

2007-10-08T15:54:00.000-06:00

The question was asked in class today how far have we gone to understanding the beginning of the universe. I offer this link for you to study since this is Elementary Particle Physics and not my area of expertise. The answer is 10 to the -32 power seconds from T=0. I think I may have put on the board, 10 to the -23 power seconds from T=0. My bad!

Boomerangs - Safety and Use

2007-10-07T14:14:00.000-06:00

As you prepare to go out and enjoy the thrill of flight through your boomerang, there are a few tips for those who wish to continue walking without limps or head injuries. Since medical bills can be very expensive, give this list a look before you start pitching the new toy you got in class today.

1. Only ONE Boomerang should be thrown at a time. Make sure that anyone else standing around is at least 50 yards away in all directions and that they are paying attention while you are throwing.

2. Never throw your Boomerang at or to someone.

3. Never throw your Boomerang laid out flat like a frisbee. The Boomerang should always be held nearly vertical on release to avoid dangerous diving and swooping flights.

4. If you are just learning to throw, don't throw too hard at first. For most Boomerangs, a half-powered throw is usually enough to get the boomerang to return. As you get more experienced you can add more power to your throw to get longer flights and ranges.

I want to thank the wonderful folks at Boomerangs.com for allowing our class to get their boomerangs at cost as well as letting me copy their list of safety features. You guys are terrific! Also, visit their site for additional throwing instructions, safety and history of the boomerang. Other sites with great information on the boomerang are:

Modern History
Ancient History
Throwing Techniques
Safety Tips

posted by Janine Bolon, instructor

Lecture Notes for Day 1(October 8, 2007)

2007-10-07T13:49:00.000-06:00

Definitions

A Form – An Outline of Powers and Limits - Mathematics

A System – A decision made before the question arises – A method used to answer a question

A Principle – A basic truth or law or assumption – Natural Laws

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What is science? Study of the Natural World

What is religion? a strong belief in a supernatural power or powers

Science is about Cosmic Order: Religion is about Cosmic Purpose

What is physics? The study of matter and energy.
What is chemistry? The science of matter; how is matter put together? The branch of the natural sciences dealing with the composition of substances and their properties and reactions.

What is biology? The study of living organisms. A much more complex science. It is dealing with matter that is alive!

What is mathematics? The study of patterns of structure, change, and space

Physics is the foundation of all the other sciences. An understanding of science begins with an understanding of physics.

Scientists answer questions:

Who?

What?

When?

Where? (90% populace & media focus on these)

How? Engineers – Take theory and put it into practice

Why? Scientists – Theoretical and Experimental arenas

Scientific Method

Recognize a problem
Make an educated guess (hypothesis)
Predict consequences
Perform experiments to test predictions
Formulate summary of results and retest if necessary

Final Exam

Why teach notebook keeping?

A scientist records every experiment
A student learns clear expression
A scholar learns to create and connect ideas

Experimental Science is a descriptive science. Written descriptions are very different from spoken descriptions. As a statesman you will have to talk/write/demonstrate your purpose.

Your opinion on a topic is not enough, nor is the opinion of others. What are the facts that gave rise to your ideas? What research have you done that led you to that conclusion? Why is path A better than path B?

Goals of this exercise:

To make notebook keeping a habit.
That no matter your occupation, record keeping saves your bacon! CYA
If it isn’t documented, it never happened.

Keep a Journal/Notebook – writing up a notebook- must be a bound notebook

What are your expectations (assumptions)
What are your methods
What are your experiences
What are your results
Repeat until you have success

Proper Journal Entries

Entry is written immediately after the work is performed
Author dates and signs entry
Each section has a clear, descriptive heading
The writing is legible and grammatical.
The use of the active voice in the first person tells the story and clearly indicated who did the work
The entry is read by a witness, who signed and dated the page

Organizing the Notebook

Table of Contents
Preface

i. Who is the author

ii. What is the goal of the work

iii. Where is the work being performed

iv. Who is funding or sponsoring the work

Table of Abbreviations
Numbering the pages
The Body of the Notebook
List of outside resources

Daily Experiments

Start a New page for each new experiment
Date, Project number or a title
Introduction/Purpose (short term goal of the work) (a look backward)

i. Explanation and support of proposed work

ii. What related work has been done by others or yourself

iii. Results of previous work – Cite literature

iv. Why was the current experiment chosen?

The Experimental Plan/Methods ( a look forward)
Observations and Data (the present) look for unexpected, novel happenings
Discussion of Results/Interpretation/Evaluation of Data/Results
Summary/Conclusion – one or two sentences for routine work and pages for a long project

i. Summarize the goal of your work, what was done and what you found

ii. Index it in your table of contents

iii. What was the goal?

iv. Was the hypothesis substantiated or disproved?

v. How well did the experimental design work toward achieving the goal?

vi. What should have been done differently?

vii. What should be done next?

Formats/Style

Page formats…no blank pages
Write the date on each page
Page numbers – circle the numbers on the outer edge of page to keep it from being confused with the data
Getting the details-book citation, page 69
Drawings – a good drawing can save you several pages of writing. Robots!
Making corrections – “Nobel Laureate Sir Peter Medawar wrote: “If an experiment does not hold out the possibility of causing one to revise one’s views, it is hard to see why it should be done at all.”
Recording Ideas

i. Tape the piece of paper or napkin in your notebook

Literature Surveys

i. Others have gone before you and have tips and tricks for you to incorporate into your work. Give them the credit where it is due.

Posted by Janine Bolon, instructor